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EDUCATION  IN  THEORY 
AND  PRACTICE 


BY 
GILBERT  H.  JONES,  A.M.,  Ph.D.  (Jena) 

Professor  of  Psychology  and  Education, 
WiJberforce  University 


BOSTON 

RICHARD  G.  BADGER 

THE  GORHAM  PRESS 


Copyright,  1919,  by  Richard  G.  Badger 
All  Rights  Reserved  n 


Made  in  the  United  States  of  America 


The  Gorham  Press,  Boston,  U.S.A. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DEDICATED 
TO 

MY  BELOVED  FATHER 

WHOSE  LOVE  OF  TRUTH.  AND 
UNREMITTING  SEARCH  FOR 
IT,  FIRST  INSPIRED  MY  YOUNG 
LIFE  AND  LED  ME  TO  LOVE 
STUDY 


r\  f\  r~  r- . 


FOREWORD 

Books  on  the  subject  of  Education  abound.  And  because 
of  the  relative  as  well  as  actual  value  of  the  subject  whose 
principles  they  attempt  to  expound  it  is  necessary  that  they 
abound.  It  is  only  by  having  access  to  the  various  view 
points  as  advanced  by  the  various  authors  in  their  texts 
that  anything  like  a  full  understanding  of  the  subject  is  to 
be  gained.  Again  students  of  the  subject  of  education  come 
from  every  walk  of  life  and  prepare  themselves  for  the  work 
in  varying  degrees.  While  the  author  is  not  ready  to  assert 
that  the  field  of  education  has  more  unprepared  or  partially 
prepared  workers  in  it  than  other  vocations,  he  knows  it  to 
be  a  fact  that  it  has  its  full  as  well  as  relatively  large  quota 
of  unprepared  or  partially  prepared  workers.  For  this 
reason  books  that  would  do  the  most  good  must  be  in  thought, 
language,  scope  and  manner  of  treatment  so  simple  as  to  be 
easily  within  the  reach  of  the  less  mature  and  more  uniniti- 
ated of  the  group.  Because  of  the  slight  acquaintance  of 
these  young  students  and  workers  with  the  nature  and  scope 
of  the  problems  of  this  their  basic  science,  in  a  treatise  of 
this  kind  which  is  intended  to  be  primary  in  the  sense  of  in- 
troductory, it  has  been  deemed  both  unnecessary  and  unwise 
to  give  many  specific  citations  and  quotations.  Especially 
is  this  plan  desirable  since  the  text  does  not  attempt  to  be 
argumentative  or  analytical  but  particularly  descriptive  and 
explanatory.  It  is  the  aim  and  hope  of  the  author  that  this 
little  effort  to  open  the  field  of  Education  to  the  beginning 
and  young  student  will  be  helpful  to  him  in  his  struggle  to 
solve  the  simpler  problems  of  education.  In  particular  does 
he  desire  that  both  the  principles  discussed  and  the  state- 
ments made  shall  prove  to  be  enlightening  in  themselves,  and 
which  is  to  him  more  important  that  they  shall  serve  to  in- 
spire him  and  create  within  him  a  desire  for  a  more  advanced, 
complete  and  fundamental  study  of  the  subject  of  education 

5 


s.6  '  l/i  £«$  ?*\  It :     t  >    ^\  Foreword 

which  is  by  its  nature  in  scope  and  relationship  one  of  the 
grandest  and  most  serviceable  fields  of  human  endeavor. 

The  Author  wishes  to  thank  at  this  time  his  associates  in 
Educational  work  for  their  kindly  suggestion  and  liberal  crit- 
icism of  the  manuscripts.  Prof.  Youngblood  and  the  as- 
sistants in  the  English  Department,  Prof.  Henderson  of 
the  Normal  Department,  and  the  students  of  that  depart- 
ment who  by  their  work  and  cooperative  study  contributed 
so  much  to  the  solutions  of  various  of  the  problems  of  educa- 
tion. 

Instead  of  giving  many  quotations  and  citations,  for  rea- 
sons given  above  there  have  been  given  only  a  few  chapters 
for  collateral  reading  at  the  end  of  each  chapter  and  a  gen- 
eral and  more  extended  bibliography  at  the  end  of  the  book. 
This  it  is  agreed  is  more  in  keeping  with  the  aim  and  scope 
of  the  work,  by  the  reading  of  which  the  student  will  gain 
a  larger  insight  into  the  content  of  the  field  and  be  better 
prepared  later  to  take  up  a  more  extended  and  more  thorough 
as  well  as  more  systematic  study  of  the  problems  of  educa- 
tion. 

Wilberforce,  Ohio, 
August,  1918. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I     The   Definition,  Nature,  Scope  and  Relation- 
ship of  Education     .            11 

II     The  Nature  and  Aim  of  Education     ....  80 
The  Nature  and  Application  of  Education     .  42 
Education  as  Related  to  Governmental  Insti- 
tutions         51 

III  Kinds  of  Education 55 

IV  The  Agencies  in  Education 80 

V     The  School 101 

Its  Location,  Environment,  Equipment,  Heat- 
ing, Lighting,  Sanitation,  Etc 101 

VI     The  Schoolroom 125 

Its  Supervision  and  Control 125 

VII     Discipline 149 

VIII     Punishments  in  the  School 171 

IX     Incentives  and  Stimulants  in  Education  .      .      .    198 
X     Routine  and  Accessory  Duties  of  the  Teacher  .   223 

I     Routine  Duties 223 

II     Accessory  Duties 235 

XI     Instruments  of  Progress  in  the  Schoolroom  .      .   248 
The  Courses  of  Study  and  the  Daily  Program  248 

XII     Accessories  of  the  Recitation 272 

XIII     The  Hearing  of  the  Recitation 295 

XIV     Psychologic  Processes  in  Education    .      .      .      .318 

XV     Subsidiary  Phases  of  Education 341 

XVI     Play,  Playgrounds,  Athletics 367 

Bibliography 389 

Index 393 


EDUCATION  IN  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE 


EDUCATION  IN  THEORY  AND 
PRACTICE 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  DEFINITION,  NATURE,  SCOPE  AND 
RELATIONSHIP  OF  EDUCATION 

The  Nature  of  a  Definition.  A  formal  definition  of  educa- 
tion that  will  be  acceptable  to  all  or  even  to  a  majority  of 
students  of  a  given  subject  is  hardly  possible.  Yet  definitions 
of  every  subject  abound.  But  not  only  do  definitions  abound, 
but  there  is  something  of  the  true  nature  of  the  subject  to  be 
found  in  each  and  every  attempt  at  defining  it.  This  is  true 
also  of  education.  A  definition  aims  to  mark  out  and  clearly 
define  conceptions  of  a  given  subject,  individual  definitions 
intending  to  represent  more  nearly  individual  conceptions. 
The  nearer  the  individual  concept  approaches  the  general 
concept,  the  nearer  will  the  individual  definition  be  generally 
accepted  and  become  the  more  generally  used.  The  in- 
dividual conception  being  made  up  in  a  way  of  the  total 
experience  of  the  individual  is  different  for  each  and  every 
member  of  the  human  species.  Many  definitions  seemed  to 
be  opposed  in  the  ideas  which  they  convey  and  some  even 
contradictory,  yet  they  all  have  the  same  end  in  view.  The 
cause  of  this  variety  is  not  difficult  to  find,  nor  is  it  to  be 
deemed  a  fault  or  disadvantage  but  rather  an  advantage  to 
the  truly  zealous  student.  It  is  traceable  to  the  varied  view 
points  of  the  different  authors.  They  are  all  looking  at  the 
same  object  from  different  view  points,  wTith  minds  of  various 
degrees  of  power,  variously  cultivated  and  directed  by  moral 
and  physical  natures,  which  are  themselves  susceptible  to  the 
control  of  various  interests.     The  description  of  the  object 

11 


12  *  *  :      •  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

.VhaoTi'^hesedefinHSons'^ive  us  is  without  a  doubt  sincerely 
and  honestly  given  even  though  they  may  seem  to  be  widely 
divergent.  Technically  speaking,  then,  a  true,  all-compre- 
hensive definition  is  practically  impossible  with  us.  A  near 
approach  to  it  is  obtained  by  unbiasedly  selecting  from  the 
whole  group  of  given  concepts,  as  found  in  definitions,  that 
which  is  essentially  true  from  the  different  view  points  and 
combining  it  into  a  harmonious  whole,  unified  and  consistent 
with  itself. 

What  view  point  an  author  takes  and  consequently  what 
he  ultimately  sees  in  a  given  subject  is  determined  chiefly 
by  what  he  wills  to  see  in  it,  i.e.  his  purpose  in  desiring  a  defi- 
nition and  the  use  to  which  he  intends  to  put  that  definition 
when  known.  For  it  goes  without  saying  that  no  human 
mind  is  so  broad  in  its  grasp,  so  well  balanced  in  and  un- 
yielding to  the  element  of  personal  bias  as  to  be  able  to  form 
what  to  all  others  would  be  accepted  as  a  perfect,  or  in  many 
cases  even  as  a  satisfactory  definition.  The  fact  is,  the  mo- 
ment you  read  an  author's  definition  you  can  quite  clearly 
tell  the  nature  of  his  conception,  the  trend  of  his  thought  and 
those  things  in  the  given  subject  which  he  values  and  those 
things  to  which  in  his  treatise  he  will  give  the  most  promi- 
nence. 

The  Definition  of  Education.  Some  definitions  describe 
education  as  a  process  whether  it  be  continuous  throughout 
life  as  regarded  by  some,  or  as  continuous  only  throughout 
the  school  career  as  such,  as  regarded  by  others.  Still 
others  limit  their  definitions  of  it  to  the  purpose  or  end  of 
the  process  as  restricted  in  its  application  to  the  individual 
whether  he  is  conscious  of  the  purpose  or  end  of  this  process 
or  not.  Some  again  make  their  definitions  practical  or 
utilitarian,  while  others  still  would  define  education  in  regard 
to  its  capacity  for  fitting  the  individual  for  a  life  with  and 
among  his  fellows.  Another  class  having  the  child  rather 
than  the  matured  individual  in  mind  would  shape  their  defini- 
tions to  him,  his  particular  needs  and  the  processes  in  educa- 
tion by  which  these  may  be  best  discovered  and  attained. 

a.  For  those  definitions  of  education  which  regard  educa- 
tion as  a  process  we  might  quote  the  following : 


Definition,  Nature,  Scope  and  Relationship  18 

"  Education  is  the  process  by  which  one  mind  forms 
another  and  one  heart  another  heart." —  Simon. 

"  Education  is  any  act  or  process  which  results  in  knowl- 
edge, or  power,  or  skill." —  White. 

"  Education  is  the  organization  of  acquired  habits  of  con- 
duct and  tendencies  to  behavior  "  and  "  consists  in  the  or- 
ganizing of  resources  in  the  human  being  of  powers  of  con- 
duct, which  shall  fit  him  to  his  social  and  physical  world." 
—  William  James. 

"  Education  is  the  process  of  making  individual  men  par- 
ticipants in  the  best  attainments  of  the  human  mind,  namely 
in  that  which  is  most  rational,  true,  beautiful  and  good." — 
Whewell. 

b.  For  those  definitions  which  regard  education  as  a  pur- 
pose or  end  we  quote  the  following : 

"  The  purpose  of  education  is  to  give  to  the  body  and  to 
the  soul  all  of  the  beauty  and  all  of  the  perfection  of  which 
they  are  capable." —  Plato. 

"  The  aim  of  education  is  the  adjustment  of  the  individual 
to  the  life  in  which  he  must  participate." —  Ruediger. 

"  The  end  of  education  is  to  render  the  individual  as  much 
as  possible  an  instrument  of  happiness,  first  to  himself  and 
next  to  others." —  James  Mill. 

"  The  end  of  education  is  to  permit  each  individual  to  at- 
tain the  most  complete  development  of  his  body,  mind  and 
heart." —  Laboulaye. 

"  A  liberal  education  is  an  education  in  which  the  individual 
is  cultivated  not  as  an  instrument  toward  some  ulterior  end, 
but  as  an  end  in  and  to  himself  alone." —  Hamilton. 

c.  For  those  definitions  which  regard  education  as  prac- 
tical, and  fitting  a  man  for  a  life  with  his  fellows  we  might 
quote  the  following : 

"  Education  is  to  develop  social  efficiency  in  individuals, 
and  this  comes  through  the  developing  of  individual  power 
by  means  of  work  in  cooperation." —  Gilbert. 

"  Education  in  the  last  analysis  is  the  influence  of  one  per- 
son upon  another." — Scudder. 

"  Education  is  the  culture  which  each  generation  pur- 


14  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

posely  gives  to  those  who  are  to  be  its  successors." — John 
Stuart  Mill. 

"  Education  is  a  preparation  for  complete  living." —  Her- 
bert Spencer. 

"  Education  is  a  living  into  better  things." —  Kerr. 

"  Education  can  only  develop  and  unfold." —  Rosenkranz. 

"  The  child  is  the  center  and  end  of  Education." —  Bryan. 

"  The  proper  education  of  to-day  is  a  preparation  for 
the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  life." —  Woodward. 

The  general  view  point,  purpose  and  comprehension  of 
these  definitions  of  education  are  evident.  The  element  of 
truth  which  they  contain  as  well  as  the  trend  of  thought 
which  they  convey  is  also  clear.  From  the  author's  view 
point,  Education  is  a  process  through  which  individuals  go, 
or  are  taken  (more  often  the  latter)  which  is  intended  to 
fit  them  for  social  efficiency,  i.e.  for  an  active  aggressive 
life  of  service  among  their  fellows.  It  aims  to  remove  from 
the  individual  defects  with  which  they  are  born  or  through 
any  cause  have  acquired,  and  supplant  them  with  the  ca- 
pacity to  live  harmoniously  with  their  fellows  and  to  share 
equitably  with  them  the  duties  and  responsibilities  as  well 
as  the  material  goods  of  this  life.  Its  purpose  or  end  is  to 
create  for  mankind  social  advantages  and  opportunities  in 
life  by  nurture  which  they  could  never  hope  to  attain  by 
nature. 

Education  in  its  Broad  and  Narrow  Sense.  In  the  defini- 
tions quoted  above  it  was  clear  that  apart  from  the  view 
points  which  those  definitions  represented  the  term  education 
itself  has  a  two-fold  meaning.  It  has  a  broad,  liberal  usage, 
and  a  narrow  restricted  usage.  In  its  broad  sense  it  is  ap- 
plied to  any  and  all  experiences  and  processes  by  which  the 
contents  of  the  soul  life  is  increased.  Looked  at  from  this 
view  point  the  educational  process  begins  with  the  earliest 
prenatal  evidences  of  life  and  continues  till  the  last  signs  of 
conscious  life  disappear  in  death.  It  is  a  process  co-ex- 
tensive with  life  itself,  and,  in  the  process,  the  regular  routine 
of  school  plays  as  small  a  part  as  is  the  actual  fractional 
portion   of  life  that   is   spent   in   the   schoolroom.     In   tb? 


Definition,  Nature,  Scope  and  Relationship  15 

broad  sense  of  education  the  world  is  the  school,  mankind  the 
teacher,  and  life  itself  the  school  period. 

b.  In  the  narrow  sense  education  applies  to  those  special 
processes  of  soul  enlargement  and  mental  growth  that  are 
carried  on  under  specialized  conditions,  during  special  periods 
of  life  and  by  special  persons  working  along  specially  pre- 
scribed lines  with  a  definite  end  in  view.  In  other  words  in 
its  narrow  sense  the  term  education  is  used  as  coextensive 
with  the  terms  school  training,  school  development  and 
growth.  This  is  the  sense  applied  to  the  term  when  people 
ask  the  question  "how  much  education  have  you?"  This 
is  also  what  is  meant  when  one  speaks  of  an  educational 
career,  or  of  an  educational  institution.  Parents  who  wish 
their  children  to  get  a  "  good  education  "  or  who  send  them 
off  to  school  to  be  "  educated,"  use  the  term  education  in 
this  narrow  sense.  In  this  sense  education  is  synonymous 
with  the  process  of  school  life  and  begins  and  ends  with  it. 

Reason  of  Being  of  Education.  But  why  do  we  possess 
such  a  concept  as  education,  what  has  brought  it  into  ex- 
istence, how  is  it  that  it  has  assumed  such  colossal  propor- 
tion in  our  thought  and  activity?  These  are  to  us  potent 
questions.  The  reply  is,  life  is  one  continuous  struggle. 
If  we  would  preserve  ourselves,  we  must  produce  and  rear 
offspring,  defend  ourselves,  against  the  ravages  of  the  forces 
of  the  environment  both  natural  and  artificial,  and  against 
the  aggression  of  our  fellows.  In  order  to  live  we  must 
know  both  what  forces  of  the  environment  are  favorable, 
what  ones  are  unfavorable,  and  how  those  that  are  unfavor- 
able may  be  modified,  or  where  this  is  not  possible  how  they 
may  be  circumvented  or  destroyed.  We  must  also  know  what 
portion  of  the  aggression  of  our  fellows  may  be  overcome, 
what  portion  must  be  modified  and  what  part  of  it  may  be 
successfully  circumvented,  and  in  each  case  how.  That  is 
to  say  we  must  know  how  to  live  in  the  social  relation;  how 
to  govern  our  conduct  under  all  conditions  of  the  environment 
and  under  all  circumstances  arising  out  of  our  social  rela- 
tions so  as  to  cause  the  least  amount  of  friction  in  and  re- 
striction of  our  individual  tendencies  to  action.     This  is  the 


16  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

duty  of  education,  and  every  system  of  education  is  worthy 
of  the  name  only  as  it  approaches  this  idea  in  the  results 
which  it  achieves.  Hence,  education  is  a  process  of  knowl- 
edge getting.  The  more  liberal  the  education  the  more  gen- 
eral and  broad  will  be  the  knowledge  gotten.  Society  de- 
mands of  its  members  that  they  know  and  be  able  to  do.  It  lit- 
tle cares  nor  long  seeks  to  find  out  by  what  process  you  came 
to  know  or  by  what  means  you  can  do.  It  is  content  to  abide 
in  the  fact  that  you  possess  the  knowledge  and  along  with 
the  possession  of  it  have  the  power  to  use  it  in  doing  things. 
Under  this  demand  the  modern  conception  of  education  has 
arisen  and  the  new  curriculum  has  been  formed,  together  with 
the  establishment  of  new  systems  of  schools.  To  educate 
is  to  cause  to  know  what  is  to  be  done  and  how  it  is  to  be 
done.  Hence  the  effort  in  all  systems  is  directed  toward 
the  end,  to  cause  to  know.  Practical  education  is  the  kind 
of  education  that  meets  the  popular  demand;  that  kind  of 
an  education  which  shows  by  results  how  much  it  causes  one 
to  know  and  how  much  it  shows  one  how  to  do.  This  is  the 
conception  which  has  created  the  modern  trend  toward  that 
technical  education,  manual  training,  industrial  education, 
and  vocational  and  commercial  education  that  has  swept  over 
those  sections  of  the  world  peopled  by  the  highly  civilized  and 
enlightened  races.  Schools  of  applied  science,  high  schools, 
colleges  and  universities  of  technology,  manual  training  and 
trade  schools,  agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges  and  uni- 
versities all  have  been  instituted  by  the  various  state  govern- 
ments of  this  country  and  by  the  national  government  in 
other  countries  under  this  conception  of  the  meaning  and 
application  of  the  term  education  and  of  the  best  methods 
of  achieving  this,  in  harmony  with  the  aim  and  end  of  life, 
and  the  value  of  knowledge  in  life,  and  in  an  education  system. 
The  rapid  rise  and  growth  as  well  as  the  loyal  support  and 
large  patronage  of  these  schools  testify  only  too  clearly  to 
the  very  unique  demand  they  supply  in  popular  education 
and  how  well  they  meet  the  present  conception  of  the  term. 
This  brings  us  down  to  the  peculiarity  of  American  educa- 
tion. 

The  all  absorbing  demand  in  American  education  is  results, 


Definition,  Nature,  Scope  and  Relationship  17 

What  Americans  wish  they  desire  without  delay.  Parents 
in  sending  their  children  to  school  wish  to  see  immediately 
the  effects  of  money  and  time  expended  and  inconveniences 
endured  to  educate  their  children.  Any  educational  process 
that  fails  to  show  these  results  is  quickly  condemned.  In 
order  to  survive  the  censure  of  public  opinion  and  come  into 
its  own  it  must  readjust  itself  to  get  results,  a  given  system 
standing  or  falling  by  its  success  in  meeting  preconceived 
standards  and  producing  for  the  state  and  society  educated 
material  of  a  certain  quality  and  degree  of  efficiency. 

Repetition  in  Education.  However  much  educational 
processes  may  be  improved,  educational  systems  advanced, 
and  however  much  greater  efficiency  it  may  attain,  its  prog- 
ress and  its  achievements  are  limited,  or  perhaps  better,  con- 
ditioned by  one  serious  but  simple  fact.  Education  is  a 
repetitive  process.  When  a  highly  educated  man  dies  he 
can  bequeath  his  knowledge  by  means  of  the  printed  page  to 
those  who  come  after  him,  but  his  education  as  a  power  of 
achievement  to  all  intents  and  purposes  dies  with  him.  It 
cannot  be  passed  bodily  into  the  mind  of  his  son  or  into 
the  minds  of  succeeding  generations.  Each  generation,  both 
individually  and  collectively  must  obtain  its  education  for 
itself,  by  the  expenditure  of  its  own  time  and  energy.  Its 
knowledge,  it  is  true,  does  come  primarily  from  that  pos- 
sessed by  its  ancestors,  and  indeed,  consists  chiefly  of  such 
knowledge.  But  whatever  of  this  ancestral  store  of  knowl- 
edge each  individual  gains  for  himself  he  must  gain  it  by 
putting  forth  his  own  time  and  energy,  the  total  amount  of 
knowledge  possessed  by  any  people  at  a  given  time  being 
made  up  of  his  ancestral  knowledge  aided  by  that  small  in- 
crement which  each  generation  may  wring  out  of  the  environ- 
ing world  during  its  own  struggles  for  existence  and  during 
the  stage  of  early  life,  preparatory  for  that  struggle. 

This  knowledge  which  is  the  result  of  education  is  ob- 
tained through  three  sources :  namely  experience,  observa- 
tion and  experiment.  The  educated  must  teach  the  unedu- 
cated, the  old  must  teach  the  young.  Socrates  taught  Plato 
and  Plato  in  turn  taught  Aristotle.  Herein  lies  both  the 
fascination  and  the  burden  of  education.     If  we  could  ac- 


18  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

quire  an  education  once  for  all  for  ourselves  and  our  pos- 
terity education  as  a  process  would  be  an  easy  one  and  we 
would  all  be  no  doubt  highly  educated  and  that  too  without 
anything  like  the  waste  of  time,  energy,  money  and  personal 
application  necessary  under  the  present  physical  and  mental 
structure  and  social  order.  But  this  is  not  the  case,  and 
education  is  never  finished,  but  each  individual  is  carried  only 
so  far.  Then  when  he  drops  out  of  the  world  of  life  and 
action,  his  offspring  is  taken  over  the  same  ground,  perhaps 
a  little  farther,  perhaps  not  quite  so  far,  each  according  to 
his  circumstances  or  condition  and  according  as  his  mental 
nature  reacts  upon  and  responds  to  the  physical  and  mental 
stimuli  of  the  school  and  of  the  world  about  him.  Each  gen- 
eration receives  its  intellectual  inheritance  (merely  a  favora- 
ble or  unfavorable  physical  basis  possessing  a  potentiality 
for  mind)  from  the  preceding  generation,  labors  to  improve 
upon  it,  stamps  it  with  the  impress  of  its  efforts  and  acquired 
knowledge  and  passes  it  on  down  the  line  to  the  succeeding 
generations  by  training  them  in  its  activities  and  secret  in- 
tellectual lore.  Nothing  comes  into  this  life  in  its  finished 
and  perfect  form.  Everything  in  the  organic  and  inorganic 
world,  the  bee,  the  flower,  the  stone,  has  its  moment  of  be- 
ginning, its  period  of  growth  and  development,  its  season 
of  flower  and  fruition,  its  hour  of  death  and  decay  and  finally 
its  fateful  process  of  dissipation  and  disintegration.  The 
mental  life  so  far  as  its  earthly  existence  is  concerned  in  its 
relations  with  body,  undergoes  apparently  the  same  proc- 
ess. Its  susceptibility  to  educational  processes  and  educa- 
tional influences  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  imperfect  from  the 
start  in  its  power  of  manifestation,  but  from  the  beginning 
one  possesses  the  power  of  taking  on  an  enlarging  form  sub- 
ject to  the  growth  of  its  place  of  abode,  the  body,  and  to 
the  influence  of  the  environment. 

Theory  and  Practice  in  Education.  The  individual  who 
enters  upon  the  task  of  controlling  the  manner  of  growth  and 
lines  of  development  of  a  living  subject  without  an  extended 
knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  subject  to  be  controlled  and 
developed,  is  undoubtedly  seriously  handicapped  at  the  outset. 
Whatever  other  resources  either  natural  or  artificial  may 


Definition,  Nature.  Scope  and  Relationship  19 

be  at  hand  to  solve  the  difficulties,  the  problem  will  still  pre- 
sent certain  forms  of  difficulties  otherwise  practically  un- 
solvable.  The  problem  is  very  like  one  that  for  instance 
would  confront  a  farmer  who  was  trying  to  raise  a  certain 
kind  of  plant  from  the  seed  without  knowing  anything  about 
the  nature  of  the  seed,  what  physical  conditions  are  favorable 
to  its  germination  and  growth,  into  what  kind  of  soil  it 
should  be  planted  or  what  kind  of  care  and  attention  are 
necessary  for  its  continued  growth  and  final  flowering  and 
fruition.  Perhaps  a  still  better  case  for  illustration  would 
be  that  of  a  man  attempting  to  feed,  care  for  and  raise 
animals  without  knowing  what  kind  of  food  they  may  best 
eat,  how  the  eating  of  various  foods  will  affect  them,  in 
what  quantities  and  after  the  lapse  of  what  intervals  of  time 
the  feeding  should  be  repeated  and  how  it  should  be  **  mixed  " 
or  "  changed  w  so  as  to  produce  the  best  results  in  normal 
healthy  growth  and  development.  The  same  dire  results 
that  would  arise  in  either  of  these  cases  to  the  object  under- 
going the  experience  will  attend  the  like  experience  in  the 
case  of  the  object  experiencing  the  mental  process.  Only 
with  this  noteworthy  exception  in  the  case  of  the  supervision 
and  care  of  the  mind,  namely  that  by  its  very  nature  and 
subtlety  mind  presents  problems  in  and  of  itself  that  require 
a  distinct  and  separate  consideration  and  study.  It  is  ob- 
vious, therefore,  that  to  be  able  properly  to  control  and 
direct  the  growth  and  development  of  the  mind  we  must  have 
an  especially  capable  knowledge  of  it.  That  is,  the  teacher 
must  have  a  special  fitness  for  his  work,  which  has  been  ac- 
quired by  special  preparation  and  training  for  it !  This 
fact  has  just  begun  to  be  brought  home  to  and  impressed 
upon  the  workers  in  this  field.  This  is  seen  by  the  strenu- 
ous efforts  now  put  forth  by  them,  though,  in  some  cases, 
under  statutory  compulsion,  to  master  the  detailed  knowledge 
of  mind,  bring  it  into  the  field  of  education  and  blend  the 
principal  of  the  two  into  a  harmonious  scheme  that  works 
out  the  laws  of  the  activity  of  the  mind  and  makes  fitting  ap- 
plication of  them  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  education. 
Education  may  be  an  art  and  some  people  may  claim  for  it 
the  advantage  of  being  more  inherited  than  acquired,  but 


20  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

in  the  severe  test  of  modern  physiological  and  psychological 
research  it  nevertheless  has  been  proved  true  that  however 
adept  one  may  be  in  any  profession  by  the  gift  of  nature, 
he  or  she  is  never  so  well  adapted  for  a  profession  as  to  be 
incapable  of  some  considerable  improvement  or  of  learning 
something  of  value  from  the  accumulated  experience  of  the 
world  collected  and  classified  in  such  a  form  as  to  constitute 
a  science. 

There  are  some  things  highly  essential  to  a  success  in 
education  and  in  educating.  One  of  the  chief  of  these  is 
practice.  While  it  is  valuable  as  a  means  of  attaining  a 
high  degree  of  perfection  in  any  profession  or  along  any 
line  of  activity,  practice  becomes  capable  of  displaying  its 
power  to  its  greatest  advantage  only  when  supplemented  by 
theory.  By  theory  we  reach  out  for  results  within  the  range 
of  known  and  recognized  possibilities,  by  practice  we  test 
these  theories  for  whatever  virtue  they  may  contain  in  fact. 
In  the  great  game  of  life  these  two  ends  meet  and  one  acts 
as  a  kind  of  restraint  upon  the  other. 

Art  and  Science  in  Education.  From  the  element  of  prac- 
tice in  the  field  of  education  we  develop  what  is  generally 
called  the  art  of  education.  From  the  element  of  theory 
we  develop  what  is  commonly  called  the  science  of  education. 
The  teacher  who  in  his  daily  contact  with  his  pupils  and  stu- 
dents observes  little  generalities,  or  communities  of  action 
and  thought,  or  devises  methods  of  attaining  a  desired  re- 
sult, is  acquiring  the  art  of  education.  For  example  when 
either  by  accident  or  conscious  experiment  one  learns,  that, 
when  students  assemble  in  the  morning  for  school  boiling 
over  with  a  life  and  enthusiasm  that  seriously  threatens  to 
make  impossible  the  obtainment  of  the  usual  quiet  and  order 
in  the  school  for  the  day,  by  merely  having  them  sing,  in  the 
opening  exercises  or  at  any  time  a  hymn  that  is  of  a  soothing 
and  quieting  melody,  their  excitement  cools  down  and  their 
youthful  exuberance  subsides,  he  has,  whether  wittingly  or  no, 
reached  a  fundamental  art  of  handling  pupils.  Again,  when 
this  same  teacher  or  another  discovers  that  by  using  illustra- 
tions from  the  daily  life  of  the  pupils  he  can  arouse  in  them 
a  distinct  and  peculiar  interest  in  the  work  and  hold  their 


Definition,  Nature,  Scope  and  Relationship  21 


attention  longer  or  until  he  has  succeeded  in  impressing  the 
facts  that  the  pupil  is  required  to  learn  on  his  mind,  he  is 
gaining  ability  in  the  art  of  teaching.  Still,  again,  when  he 
has  learned  that,  by  asking  interesting  and  suggestive  ques- 
tions about  a  given  lesson  and  then  leaving  the  child's  mind 
in  a  state  of  restless  curiosity,  he  can  arouse  the  young  mind 
until  it  will  of  its  own  accord  seek  out  answers  to  these 
questions  for  itself,  he  has  acquired  the  essence  of  the  art  of 
education. 

Now  when  the  fact  which  aids  the  one  teacher  in  this  or 
that  circumstance  and  that  which  aids  in  another  or  the 
same  circumstances  are  brought  together  and  this  is  repeated 
again  and  again  until  from  many  sources  and  conditions 
there  are  gathered  together  a  number  of  isolated  facts,  and 
all  are  compared  and  a  general  principle  common  to  all  is 
deduced  therefrom,  one  is  moving  into  the  field  of  education 
as  a  science.  The  art  of  education  is  the  knowledge  gained 
by  immediate  experiments  here  and  there,  spasmodic,  acci- 
dental, unrelated  experiments,  and  used  in  a  general  manner. 
The  science  is  the  knowledge  gained  when  the  experiment  of 
many  individuals  are  systematized  and  regulated  and  cer- 
tain definite  though  perhaps  general  conditions  and  results 
formed  and  tabulated  and  the  law  or  principle  underlying 
these  results  as  causes,  formulated  and  given  out.  By  col- 
lecting, comparing  and  classifying  the  facts  of  experience 
and  experiment  gained  in  the  art  of  education  it  has  been 
found  that  the  mind  has  a  power  and  shows  a  tendency  to 
group  and  classify  certain  impressions  of  the  senses  together 
in  certain  ways  under  certain  natural  relations  that  they 
bear.  It  is  in  the  understanding  and  expected  validity  of  a 
law  so  deduced  that  the  art  of  education  and  science  of  educa- 
tion blend.  The  science  gives  us  the  law,  but  the  law  being  a 
generality  in  which  the  special  cases  of  exceptions  are  ig- 
nored it  remains  for  art  in  practice  in  the  detailed  processes 
of  experiment  and  experience  to  test  in  each  particular  case 
and  see  just  what  part,  if  any,  is  valid  in  the  particular  case 
under  consideration,  and  what  not,  and  thereby  clarify  and 
purge  the  science. 
Method  in  Education.     The  success  of  education  as  a  proc- 


£#  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

ess  has  been  found  to  depend  pretty  much  upon  three  equally 
important  things.  Knowledge  of  the  individual  with  whom 
as  an  object  education  has  to  deal,  knowledge  of  the  subject 
matter  which  education  is  to  impart  to  the  individual  and 
knowledge  of  the  method  by  which  education  is  to  bring  the 
mind  of  the  individual  into  contact  with  the  matter,  the 
proper  intaking  of  which  constitutes  education  in  this  sense. 
Successful  education  is  attained  when  between  these  the  most 
cordial  relations  and  agreeable  association  have  been  estab- 
lished and  the  most  lasting  as  well  as  most  beneficial  effect 
produced  both  upon  the  subject  as  recipient  and  the  subject 
matter  as  the  thing  received.  But  just  how  to  do  this  is 
the  problem.  Because  of  the  great  diversity  of  homes  and 
home  surroundings  from  which  the  material  to  be  educated 
in  our  schools  comes,  the  variety  of  temperaments  and  general 
differences  both  physical  and  psychical,  due  to  various 
normal  and  abnormal  conditions,  the  human  mind  presents 
such  a  heterogeneous  form  as  to  complicate  and  make  almost 
hopeless  any  attempt  to  reduce  the  chaotic  mass  of  facts 
observed  to  anything  like  the  definiteness  that  the  term  science 
would  lead  one  ordinarily  to  expect,  where  that  term  is  used. 
However,  we  do  have  method  in  the  science  of  education, 
and  this  method  is  to-day  reduced  pretty  much  to  a  science. 
As  such  it  has  contributed  much  to  the  cause  of  education, 
and  by  advanced  educators  is  considered  practically  in- 
dispensable to  those  who  would  succeed. 

The  Use  of  Terms,  In  attempting  to  discuss  method  in 
teaching  it  will  be  of  value  for  clearness  of  treatment  to  state 
that  the  terms  in  general  and  ordinary  use  in  education  are 
not  clearly  defined.  Each  author  uses  the  delegated  freedom 
of  authorship  to  bring  into  play  his  own  ingenuity  and  power 
of  thought  to  express  his  own  conception  of  the  meaning  of 
terms  in  his  own  manner  and  language,  limited  only  by  the 
general  laws  of  propriety  and  good  usage.  For  that  reason 
there  are  almost  as  many  conceptions  of  the  subject  evident 
in  the  use  of  educational  terms  as  there  are  respective  au- 
thorities upon  educational  matters.  However,  several  of  the 
terms  in  general  usage  though  technically  they  are  differ- 
entiated and  regarded  as  separate  terms,  in  common  usage 


Definition,  Nature,  Scope  and  Relationship  23 

they  are  regarded  as  synonyms  and  are  so  used.  But  as 
this  is  true  in  general  of  every  field  of  science,  the  fact  need 
not  give  any  particular  concern  here.  The  terms  most  com- 
monly occurring  in  education  and  which  underlie  all  prin- 
ciples to  be  applied  are  instruction,  teaching,  training,  and 
learning.  By  the  popular  mind  teaching  is  generally  re- 
garded as  the  process  of  producing  mental  activity  by  pre- 
senting objects  and  subjects  of  thought  to  the  pupil's  mind 
that  results  in  knowledge  for  him.  With  this  general  con- 
ception, however,  already  the  difficulty  of  defining  the  others 
is  clearly  seen.  For  the  benefit  of  the  student,  however, 
clearness  will  be  served  by  giving  definitions  for  the  other 
terms  in  which  the  generally  understood  distinction  and  dif- 
ferences are  reasonably  clearly  brought  out.  It  may  be 
said  that  teaching  is  what  is  carried  on  by  the  teacher  in 
presentation  with  its  accompanying  explanation  and  other 
aids  to  clear  understanding;  instruction  is  the  mental  ac- 
tivity aroused  in  the  pupil  by  and  during  the  process  of  teach- 
ing; while  education  is  the  state  of  mind  that  results  in  the 
subject  from  this  external  and  internal  activity  by  means 
of  which  knowledge  is  gained  and  skill  and  power  in  mind  and 
body  acquired.  But  in  each  case  it  will  be  found  that  that 
which  each  shares  in  common  with  the  other  is  that  in  each 
there  are  acts  of  presentation  on  the  part  of  some  one,  say 
the  teacher,  mental  activity  on  the  part  of  some  one,  say  the 
pupil.  Knowledge,  power  and  skill  result  in  the  psychic 
make  up  of  the  individual  educated.  Reduced  to  a  nicety 
this  difference  is  generally  recognized.  Teaching  is  carried 
on  by  other  than  the  subject  receiving  the  education,  while 
learning  represents  the  activity  of  the  subject  himself  in 
his  own  behalf.  Instruction  is  teaching  limited  to  a  narrow 
and  more  specialized  field  of  knowledge  and  is  often  regarded 
as  a  phase  secondary  to  teaching  in  the  broader  and  more 
general  sense.  Training  applies  more  directly  to  skill  and 
power  and  dexterity  in  bodily  movements,  nerve  control  and 
muscular  coordination.  However,  in  each  and  every  case 
in  the  narrow  sense  education  as  above  understood  is  accom- 
plished to  a  degree  more  or  less  extensive  according  as  the 
system  under  which  the  process  is  carried  out  is  efficient  and 


24  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

thorough  or  not.  In  both  the  narrow  and  the  broad  mean- 
ing of  the  term  all  of  these  processes  denoted  by  the  words, 
teaching,  instruction,  training,  are  educational,  and  any 
and  all  methods  employed  in  accomplishing  them  if  success- 
ful will  be  received  with  more  or  less  degree  of  satisfaction. 

Much  ado  has  been,  and  is  still  being  made,  over  the  matter 
of  methods  in  education.  This  is  undoubtedly  justly  so. 
For  while  method  soon  tells  in  any  field  of  labor  it  is  particu- 
larly effective  in  result-getting  in  the  field  of  education.  So 
well  has  the  importance  of  methods  in  education  been  recog- 
nized that  methods  have  developed  to  have  subject  matter 
of  its  own  which  it  is  now  required  generally  that  all  who 
would  aspire  to  teach  should  obtain  some  knowledge  of  its 
meaning  and  content  in  education.  By  method  in  the  edu- 
cational sense  both  as  used  narrowly  and  as  used  broadly 
is  meant  any  series  of  acts  of  teaching  arranged  according 
to  the  art  and  science  of  education  to  attain  a  definite  end 
in  itself  or  in  a  definite  and  outlined  series  of  processes. 

Education  and  Psychology.  In  the  study  of  the  mind 
there  are  to  be  found  two  elements,  the  physical  element  and 
the  psychical  element.  We  have  the  former  in  the  nature 
and  condition  of  the  mind  itself,  and  the  latter  in  the  fact  that 
the  mental  life  is  physiologically  conditioned.  The  study  of 
education  proper  will  involve,  therefore,  a  two-fold  aspect, 
one,  the  psychological  which  considers  the  general  mental  na- 
ture and  temperament  of  the  individual,  the  other  the  physio- 
logical which  considers  the  physical  organism,  its  nature  and 
its  general  adaptitude  to  its  environment  during  the  period 
of  the  educative  process,  also  how  the  one  may  be  used  to 
stimulate  and  arouse,  the  other  to  an  activity  which  will  in- 
duce healthy  growth  and  development  as  well  as  lead  to  an 
enlargement  of  the  field  of  knowledge,  and  the  laws  by  which 
it  will  act  when  properly  aroused  and  stimulated.  Every 
educator  recognizes  the  fact  that  the  child  has  a  mind  and 
that  that  mind  is  capable  of  receiving  an  impetus  to  growth 
and  development  through  the  medium  of  his  physical  organ- 
ism. The  problem  of  the  best  means  available  for  stimulating 
this  growth  both  in  the  field  of  psychology  and  education 
is  just  beginning  to  loom  up.     It  also  grows  and  takes  on 


Definition,  Nature,  Scope  and  Relationship  25 

proportions  not  only  as  the  fact  that  all  minds  appear  to 
be  different  in  their  capacity  of  taking  on  development  and 
of  responding  to  different  kinds  of  stimuli  is  realized,  but  also 
when  it  is  observed  that  at  different  periods  in  its  existence 
the  mind  responds  in  different  degrees  to  the  same  kinds  and 
forms  of  stimuli.  To  a  certain  limited  degree  mind  seems  to 
be  independent  of  the  body  in  some  of  its  activities  and  forms 
of  manifestations,  but  in  the  matter  of  education  and  educa- 
tional processes  mind  is  apparently  almost  completely  de- 
pendent upon  the  body  and  its  relation  to  other  bodies.  It  is 
the  aim  of  psychology  to  trace  out  the  operation  of  mind, 
the  bodily  states  by  which  these  are  induced,  to  discover 
how  the  one  acts  upon  the  other  and  how  it  is  in  its  turn 
acted  upon  by  it.  Education  seeks  to  embody  the  facts  ob- 
tained about  the  mind  in  psychology  in  a  code  of  princi- 
ples, or  perhaps  better  here,  laws,  whereby  methods  of  ap- 
plying the  truths  of  psychology  to  education  might  be 
worked  out  into  a  fitting  and  successful  scheme  which  will 
promote  the  largest  and  most  complete  form  of  mental,  moral 
and  physical  growth  and  development.  Here  it  is  that  edu- 
cation and  pyschology  strike  common  ground.  Here  it  is 
that  they  begin  to  diverge.  In  education  the  mind  is  the 
thing  to  be  treated,  that  is  to  undergo  the  effect  of  the  mold- 
ing influence  of  these  active  processes.  The  science  through 
which  we  are  to  learn  of  mind  is  psychology.  It  tells  of 
the  natural  growth,  development  and  activity  of  the  mind. 
If  education  is  the  result  to  be  wrought  on  mind,  if  educa- 
tion is  a  result  to  be  attained  by  mind,  if  the  thing  to  be  in- 
structed developed  and  trained  is  mind  and  that  which  is  conr 
trolled  by  mind,  namely,  the  body,  if  the  principles  to  be  ap- 
plied are  to  be  applied  to  mind  in  its  normal  and  incidentally 
to  mind  in  its  abnormal  operations,  then  these  operations  can 
only  be  successfully  performed,  these  resulting  states  can 
only  be  successfully  produced  by  an  adequate  knowledge  of 
mind,  its  nature  and  its  laws  of  action  growth  and  develop- 
ment and  manner  of  manifestation  in  these  operations.  This 
is  why  a  knowledge  of  psychology  is  so  essential  to  a  suc- 
cessful direction  of  the  process  of  education,  why  education 
and  psychology  are  correlative  sciences,  why  an  attempt  at 


26  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

the  effectual  carrying  out  of  the  process  of  education  is  a 
failure  where  the  basis  of  all  methods  and  principles  are  not 
founded  upon  the  science  of  mind,  psychology.  This  is  why 
to-day  more  than  ever  before  psychology  is  made  the  start- 
ing point  of  all  work  in  education  and  of  all  work  in  initia- 
ting and  directing  educational  processes. 

Education  and  Pedagogy.  With  most  authors  the  idea 
of  education  and  pedagog}'  are  kept  apart  from  each  other. 
With  them  education  is  a  result  and  pedagogy  a  group  or  a 
system  of  principles,  by  which  the  result  is  obtained.  As 
was  stated  in  the  definitions  above  teaching  is  the  methods 
by  which  the  process  of  enlargement  in  education  is  accom- 
plished. Pedagogy  is  the  science  which  tells  what  the  prin- 
ciples involved  are  and  shows  how  they  are  applied  to  ac- 
complish this  end.  Education  is  the  process  of  teaching  the 
instrument  of  guiding  and  directing  the  process  throughout 
its  course,  while  pedagogy  is  the  principle  or  perhaps  better 
the  group  of  principles  which  tell  us  how  the  instrument  is 
to  be  applied  to  the  subject  undergoing  the  treatment. 
However,  while  the  above  distinctions  afford  a  definite  kind 
of  clearness  that  has  its  practical  value  in  actual  life  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  term  education  in  this  sense  has  a 
two-fold  meaning,  which  it  will  be  well  to  understand  here 
in  order  to  avoid  future  misunderstanding.  In  one  of  these 
senses  it  means  the  processes  by  which  certain  predetermined 
ends  are  to  be  attained ;  in  the  other  it  denotes  the  end  which 
these  processes  are  supposed  to  attain  in  the  individual  and 
in  individual  capacity  for  activity.  It  is  thus  at  one  and 
the  same  time  both  an  end  and  a  means  to  an  end.  As  a 
process  it  is  a  means  to  an  end,  as  a  result  it  is  an  end  in 
itself. 

Education  as  Related  to  the  History  of  Education.  In  its 
general  or  broad  sense  education  as  a  process  is  as  old  as 
man  himself.  At  first  it  was  unorganized  and  without  sys- 
tem, being  conducted  spasmodically  and  as  emergency  de- 
manded. Later  on  as  the  need  for  it  spread  it  became  more 
regular,  more  organized  and  systematized.  At  first  there 
were  no  schools  as  such  nor  were  there  any  set  places  or  times 
for  giving  out  instruction.     Specially  designated  places  gen- 


Definition,  Nature,  Scope  and  Relationship  27 

erally  in  the  opening  or  under  natural  protection  from  the 
elements,  followed  later,  as  did  specially  built  structures. 
Gradually  system  was  introduced.  With  system  came 
method  under  observation  and  experiment.  At  this  ad- 
vanced stage  the  need  of  keeping  records  showed  itself.  The 
beginning  of  keeping  records  in  education  marked  the  advent 
of  the  history  of  the  development  of  education.  The  value  of 
keeping  records  of  the  fruits  of  observation  and  experiment 
in  education  has  long  since  been  seen  and  appreciated.  By 
this  means  all  of  the  various  vicissitudes  through  which  edu- 
cation has  passed  together  with  its  various  outgrowths,  all 
that  have  had  any  notable  effect  on  education  since  the  dawn 
of  our  western  civilization  in  the  Hebrew,  Grecian  and  Ro- 
man cultures  have  been  preserved  for  us  of  to-day.  Through 
them  we  may  learn  the  stages  through  which  the  process  of 
education  has  passed  and  just  how  much  each  has  meant  to 
us  and  our  present  methods  of  conducting  education.  By 
means  of  the  history  of  education  those  interested  in  educa- 
tion to-day  can  tell  how  certain  things  came  to  be  in  educa- 
tion and  what  effect  their  being  has  had  upon  those  particu- 
lar countries  or  localities  in  which  this  particular  form  of 
education  has  been  fostered  or  allowed  to  develop.  They 
can  also  see  what  particular  phase  of  education  has  been 
developed  in  various  sections,  how  these  phases  have  modified 
or  been  modified  by  the  manners,  morals  and  institutions  of 
various  countries,  as  well  as  how  they  reflect  the  tempera- 
ment of  a  people.  Apart  from  this,  by  studying  the  history 
of  education  students  can  see  what  warrant  certain  methods 
and  processes  in  education  have  and  through  what  fluctua- 
tions they  have  passed  before  they  reached  their  present 
stability.  In  this  knowledge  they  can  feel  that  these  methods 
and  processes  have  been  purged  of  their  dross  by  years,  even 
centuries  of  test  under  every  form  of  stress  that  a  changing 
condition  of  living  and  thinking  and  a  changing  environment 
could  force  upon  it.  Thus,  history  of  education  shows  many 
things  in  our  systems  to-day  that  have  outlived  centuries 
of  criticisms  and  opposition.  He  who  in  the  light  of  this 
hastily  assails  a  system  or  a  method,  takes  upon  himself 
grave  responsibility.     However  by  this  it  is  not  meant  to  say 


28  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

that  everything  that  has  come  down  to  us  as  relics  of  the 
past  has  not  served  its  day  of  usefulness,  and  is  therefore 
not  worthy  of  further  use.  Nor  is  it  intended  to  bind  us 
in  any  set  way  to  the  past.  There  is  much  in  education  to- 
day which  the  history  of  education  shows  has  held  promi- 
nence in  the  past  and  which  has  the  warrant  of  ages  of  ex- 
periment and  test,  but  which  has  lived  out  its  days  of  use- 
fulness and  because  of  which  has  been  and  should  be  dis- 
carded. It  is  only  recently  that  a  criticism  of  the  present 
content  of  educational  process  and  method  has  started  a  re- 
form, the  good  of  which  all  appreciate  now  fully.  The  wave 
of  reform  brought  with  it  the  reduction  of  the  time  devoted 
to  a  study  of  the  classics,  the  removal  or  reduction  of  time 
devoted  to  rote  and  stereotyped  teaching  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  more  science,  history,  and  biography.  It  also  led 
gradually  to  the  introduction  of  modern  language  and" pro- 
fessional, commercial,  vocational  and  industrial  phases  of 
education. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  education  owes  much  to  the  history 
of  education  in  more  ways  than  one.  So  closely  has  the 
growth  and  development  of  education  been  associated  with 
the  history  of  education  that  no  clear  conception  of  the 
former  can  be  had  unless  it  be  gotten  in  the  light  of  the 
latter.  The  history  of  education  is  therefore  a  necessary 
adjunct  of  education  and  should  go  hand  in  hand  with  it. 
Knowledge  of  it  means  knowledge  of  education.  Courses 
in  education  therefore  cannot  hope  of  much  success  unless 
they  are  given  in  connection  with  a  course  in  the  history  of 
education. 

From  this  brief  discussion  of  things  introductory,  but  at 
the  same  time  of  value  for  the  light  they  throw  upon  the 
subject  in  general  we  pass  to  discussions  more  directly  to 
the  purpose  of  the  work. 

REFERENCE  READING 

Bain's  "  Education  as  a  Science."     Chap.  I. 
Barnard's  "Journal."     Vol.  XI  and  Vol.  XIII. 
Compayre's  "Lecture  on  Teaching."     Chap.  I. 
White's  "Elements  of  Pedagogy."    Chapter  Introduction. 
Spencer's  "Education."    Chap.  I. 


Definition,  Nature,  Scope  and  Relationship  29 

Butler's  "The  Meaning  of  Education."     Lectures  I  and  II. 

Compayre's  "Psychology  Applied  to  Education."    Chaps.  Ill  and  XI. 

McKeever's  "  Psychologic  Method  in  Teaching."    Cnap.  I. 

Dewey's  "The  School  and  Society."     Chap.  II. 

Roark's  "  Psychology  in  Jbducation."     Introduction. 

Bagley's  "The  Educative  Process,"  Chap.  II. 

Ladd's  "  The  Higher  Education."     Chap.  IV. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  NATURE  AND  AIM  OF  EDUCATION 

A.  The  Aim  of  Education.  As  was  seen  by  the  various 
definitions  quoted  in  the  opening  chapter,  the  aims  of  educa- 
tion were  manifold.  Indeed,  in  the  aim  of  education  as  in 
the  definitions  of  it,  it  takes  but  little  observation  either 
of  the  process  of  education  or  of  its  conception  in  ad- 
vanced minds  to  discover  that  the  aims  of  education  are  as 
varied  as  are  the  relations  which  individuals  sustain  to  each 
other  and  to  their  local  environment.  A  true  education 
would  aim  to  fit  man  for  the  proper  fulfilling  of  all  of  the 
responsibilities  of  these  relations ;  to  prepare  him  for  "  com- 
plete living  "  in  the  Spencerian  sense  of  the  word.  It  aims 
to  bring  about  harmonious  development  in  the  individual 
members  of  the  human  family.  We  are  born  into  the  world 
with  certain  defects,  moral,  mental  and  physical.  Educa- 
tion as  such  aims  to  remove  or  modify  these  defects  in  such 
a  way  as  to  give  us  increased  activity  and  increased  partici- 
pation in  and  enjoyment  of  the  affairs  of  life.  What  we  be- 
come in  life  is  determined  by  two  things,  first,  the  natural 
tendency  to  action  growing  out  of  an  inherited  structure 
given  us  by  the  accumulated  experience  of  the  race  in  its 
life  history  which  we  call  instincts,  and,  secondly,  by  the 
modifications  which  the  forces  of  the  environment  work  upon 
us  in  inhibiting  or  nurturing  these  tendencies  to  action. 
From  this  viewpoint  the  aim  of  education  would  be  adjust- 
ment to  any  and  all  conditions  required  for  or  in  any  way 
contributing  to  life.  The  conditions  requisite  for  and  con- 
tributing to  life  to  which  education  aims  to  adjust  us  when 
considered  in  detail  are  far  too  numerous  to  receive  even 
the  most  brief  consideration.  However,  we  may  mention 
some  of  the  few  more  important.  Among  them  are  physical 
adjustment,  mental  adjustment,  economic,  civic  and  social 

30 


The  Nature  and  Aim  of  Education  81 

adjustment.     We  take  up  first  the  adjustment  to  the  physi- 
cal environment. 

The  adjustment  to  the  physical  environment  is  primary, 
for  without  this  form  of  adjustment  life  itself  would  scarcely 
be  possible.  Not  only  would  it  be  difficult  to  begin  life,  but 
its  maintenance  would  be  an  even  greater  difficulty.  Physical 
adjustment  consists  of  a  series  of  acts  seeking  to  circumvent 
and  overcome  the  bad  effects  of  the  play  of  the  natural  forces 
present  in  the  environment.  This  circumvention  and  over- 
coming may  be  accomplished  in  many  ways.  Chief  among 
them  is  the  making  of  wearing  apparel  for  overcoming  or 
aiding  the  various  climatic  conditions,  namely,  the  heat  of 
summer  and  of  the  torrid  zone,  the  cold  of  winter  and  of  the 
frigid  zones,  and  the  effect  of  sunshine,  rain  and  wind.  The 
preparation  and  taking  of  medicine  to  check  or  repair  waste 
brought  on  through  the  ravages  of  the  elements  of  the  en- 
vironment and  to  thicken  or  thin  the  blood  for  heat  or  cold 
as  the  case  may  be,  the  building  of  houses  for  protection 
against  heat  and  our  fellow  man,  the  manufacture  of  the 
material  for  artificial  light  in  the  home  and  business  plant, 
the  preparation  of  artificial  foodstuffs  that  enable  man  to 
escape  the  environmental  conditions,  all  of  these  constitute 
forms  of  physical  adjustment  which  man  must  learn  if  he 
would  successfully  maintain  himself  against  the  forces  of 
the  world  that  play  constantly  about  him.  But  these  are 
only  artificial  means  of  adjustments.  The  natural  forms 
of  physical  adjustment  are  only  indirectly  under  the  control 
of  man.  These  are  characterized  by  being  much  slower  in 
the  results  they  produce.  They  are  not  under  control  of  the 
human  will  but  spring  involuntarily  from  the  natural  reaction 
of  the  life  spirit  in  its  struggles  against  the  external  forces 
of  the  environment.  Such  adjustments  show  themselves 
sooner  or  later  generally  as  modified  structure  and  in  science 
are  known  as  acquired  characteristics.  These  acquired  char- 
acteristics may  or  may  not  become  transmissible  by  heredity 
as  they  do  or  do  not  enter  into  the  living  and  functional 
activity  of  the  organism.  The  adjustments  of  the  mind  to 
its  intellectual  environment  are  secondary  in  their  importance 
to  life,  but  primary  in  their  importance  to  happiness.     The 


33  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

mental  acquisition  of  the  various  racial  groups  of  mankind 
is  varied.  That  of  the  various  individuals  in  the  same  racial 
group  or  subgroup  varies  also  considerably,  according  to 
their  circumstance  or  condition  of  living  and  the  opportunity 
which  it  offers  them  of  gaining  mental  advancement.  The 
minds  vary  also  in  quality  both  among  individuals  and  races 
so  far  as  their  capacity  for  gaining  special  knowledge  and 
their  fitness  for  special  kinds  or  degrees  of  activity.  This 
disparity  in  mental  calibre  (quality  of  mind)  and  intelligence 
(quality  of  mind  and  content  of  mind)  is  the  source  of  much 
inconvenience  and  misunderstanding  among  men.  Some  men 
are  so  far  in  advance  of  their  fellows  in  their  possession  of 
knowledge  that  they  are  and  can  be  of  little  good  to  them. 
Consequently  though  possessing  much  knowledge  their  power 
for  good  among  men  practically  is  nil,  because  they  have  not 
enough  in  common  in  their  thoughts  and  manner  of  action 
and  reaction  to  effect  a  mutual  regard  and  general  consent 
for  commingling,  even  if  they  really  desired  such.  These 
cases  are  few  it  is  true.  But  every  once  in  a  while  the  clash 
of  such  spirits  with  their  fellows  leads  to  some  serious  shock 
to  the  general  social  body.  Often,  too,  the  world  loses  what 
these  would  give,  because  they  are  out  of  harmony  and  touch 
with  these  spirits  and  it  is  thereby  set  back  oftentimes  many 
years  in  its  progress  by  not  being  in  a  position  mentally  to 
appreciate  the  value  of  the  contents  of  such  advanced  minds 
and  therefore  repudiates  it  often  in  its  entirety.  On  the 
other  hand  there  are  men  who  are  so  far  behind  their  fellows 
in  their  possession  of  knowledge  that  they  are  not  so  much 
a  menace  to  civilization  as  they  are  an  inert  and  sometimes 
stubborn  load  which  contributes  little  except  mere  weight 
to  racial  advancement  and  adjustment  through  education. 
In  fact  they  are  mostly  the  mentally  "  unad  jus  tables  "  and 
"  uneducables."  Between  these  two  groups  just  mentioned 
as  extremes  there  are  to  be  found  men  of  all  degrees  of  ad- 
jus  tableness  and  of  all  capacities  for  education  and  modifica- 
tion through  education.  Among  these  might  be  found  the 
super-adjustable  as  well  as  the  sub-adjustable  mentally,  the 
various  forms  of  maniacs,  paranoiacs,  inebriates,  eccentrics 
and  feeble-minded,  with  their  corresponding  states  of  mind 


The  Nature  and  Aim  of  Education  83 

and  susceptibility  to  education,  and  educational  effort.  To 
the  man  therefore,  who  in  this  state  of  seeming  intellectual 
instability  and  uncertainty  must  depend  upon  individual 
knowledge  and  ability  to  steer  his  intellectual  ship  safely 
through  the  disturbed  group  or  period,  there  must  come  a 
mental  adjustment  that  must  be  at  once  wide  and  general. 
If  he  would  hold  his  own  and  make  progress  he  must  at  the 
same  time  attain  the  mental  equipoise  and  balance  necessary 
for  safe  guidance  in  such  an  intellectual  maze.  He  must  be 
capable  of  taking  on  adjustment.  The  intellectual  aberra- 
tion (super-mental  adjustment)  to  which  mankind  is  sub- 
ject and  the  misery  and  suffering  which  this  entails  upon 
men  are  too  numerous  to  need  mentioning. 

False  prophets  abound  everywhere  as  do  false  agitators 
and  preachers  of  false  creeds.  All  of  these  are  mere  cases 
of  those  unadjusted  mentally  to  the  environment.  Where 
these  are  sufficiently  in  touch  with  the  mental  environment  to 
readjust  themselves  through  education  and  do  so  they  may 
become  of  practical  service  to  the  world  in  aiding  its  progress. 

Moral  Adjustment.  The  term  moral  adjustment  is  used 
here  in  its  primary  and  primitive  sense.  By  moral  adjust- 
ment is  meant  the  adjustment  of  an  individual  to  the  habits 
and  customs  of  his  fellows  as  a  race  or  type.  The  eccentric 
in  dress,  in  manner  of  living  and  achieving  all  come  under 
this  head.  These  are  they  who  are  continuously  "  shock- 
ing "  society  by  arbitrary  and  unusual  habits  and  actions. 
We  find  them  in  the  parlor,  the  library,  the  dining-room  and 
hall  as  well  as  in  the  places  of  public  assembly.  Instead 
of  being  in  harmony  with  the  social  order  these  men  are  de- 
cidedly out  of  harmony  with  it.  Often  they  are  so  by  choice 
and  pride  themselves  in  so  being,  in  which  case  it  is  the  more 
difficult  to  bring  them  under  the  adjusting  influence  of  educa- 
tion. Still  it  must  be  admitted  that  they  are  out  of  ad- 
justment with  the  social  order  and  to  the  extent  of  their  lack 
of  adjustment  retard  if  not  seriously  check,  social  move- 
ments and  social  progress.  To  this  extent  they  are  not 
harmoniously  developed  and  are  not  prepared  for  complete 
living.  For  the  most  complete  living  is  only  to  be  had  where 
there  is  the  greatest  harmony  and  accord  among  men,     But 


34  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

this  is  not  the  most  common  nor  the  most  serious  form  of  lack 
of  moral  adjustment.  This  is  to  be  found  in  the  criminal. 
His  is  the  most  flagrant  case  of  lack  of  adjustment.  He 
it  is  that  the  mighty  forces  of  society  bend  their  efforts  to 
reform.  One  of  the  chief  burdens  of  the  public  school  is 
to  educate  in  such  manner  as  to  protect  society  against  the 
vicious  and  the  criminal  tendencies  in  society.  While  many 
of  the  evil  and  criminal  tendencies  in  men  are  created  outside 
of,  away  from,  and  despite  the  efforts  of  the  school  much  of 
it  is  fostered  there.  Some  is  brought  on  by  laxity  of 
methods,  some  by  severity  of  methods,  but  all  of  it  education 
should  overcome. 

Religious  Adjustment,  Nowhere  is  adjustment  more 
necessary  than  in  matters  of  religion.  Religion  is  very  in- 
tolerant and  very  impatient  in  her  intolerance.  Those  who 
are  unadjusted  here  have  generally  paid  for  their  lack  of 
adjustment  in  most  countries  by  considerable  suffering  and 
at  times  even  by  the  loss  of  their  lives.  Throughout  all  ages 
religion  has  generally  demanded  and  does  now  frequently 
demand  the  freedom,  the  life  and  limb  of  those  una  justed. 
Here  persecution  is  rampant  and  the  suffering  inflicted  is  al- 
most indescribable  even  if  not  almost  unbelievable.  In  re- 
ligious adjustment  education  as  conducted  in  the  schools  can 
accomplish  little  chiefly  because  no  religious  education  is 
taught  in  the  schools.  The  church  originally  controlled 
all  forms  of  education  and  in  the  separation  between  church 
and  state  she  has  held  tenaciously  to  religious  education, 
losing  in  the  fight  all  other  forms  of  education  except  per- 
haps some  right  to  continue  moral  education.  Now  the 
church  is  mostly  stultified  and  wedded  to  the  past.  It  is  also 
to  a  considerable  extent  dogmatic  and  empirical.  Being 
these  it  accepts  change  slowly,  consequently  with  it,  adjust- 
ment is  but  a  small  possibility.  It  opposes  adjustment 
through  the  channel  of  the  school  and  initiates  but  little 
within  itself.  And  yet  how  much  has  this  lack  of  adjustment 
not  cost  the  church,  the  state,  and  society  ?  And  yet,  if  the 
church  is  to  keep  its  hold  on  the  people,  it  must  accept  edu- 
cation and  make  within  itself  those  adjustments  which  educa- 
tion brings  in  order  that  religious  adjustment  may  keep  pace 


The  Nature  and  Aim  of  Education  35 

with  the  other  forms  of  adjustment  which  education  aims  to 
bring  to  men. 

Economic  Adjustment,  Indigence,  poverty  and  pauper- 
ism are  the  lot  of  those  unadjusted  to  the  economic  environ- 
ment. The  multimillionaire  represents  the  highest  stages 
of  economic  adjustment.  Morally  he  may  be  completely  out 
of  order,  unadjusted  and  he  may  suffer  certain  incon- 
veniences, therefor,  but  the  degree  of  economic  adjustment 
must  have  been  for  him  high.  Much  of  his  adjustment  if 
we  are  to  believe  the  facts  printed  about  them  has  been  gained 
not  so  much  through  the  education  of  the  school  as  through 
that  gained  by  contact  with  the  world,  its  men  and  its  affairs. 
Of  course  much  of  the  wealth  in  the  possession  of  the  mil- 
lionaire class  does  not  represent  the  real  fruits  of  economic 
adjustment.  Especially  does  it  not  represent  adjustment 
during  the  life  of  one  individual.  Then,  too,  much  of  that 
wealth  that  has  been  accumulated  by  one  individual  repre- 
sents sometimes  extortion,  robbery  and  "  graft,"  unscrupu- 
lous and  unprincipled  plunder  of  the  public  goods  and  utili- 
ties that  have  been  made  possible  by  the  general  faults  of 
governmental  agencies,  and  the  general  social  disorder,  which 
prevails  to  more  or  less  extent.  Without  this  fact  before  us 
it  would  appear  from  the  few  rich  that  there  are  but  few 
highly  adjusted  to  the  economic  order.  However,  there  are 
many  who  are  highly  adjusted  to  the  economic  order,  but 
who  do  not  stand  out  as  do  these  mentioned  here  because 
they  have  not  invoked  the  secondary  means  to  advance  the 
natural  results  of  their  economic  adjustment.  So  that  while 
the  various  stages  of  material  progress  and  material  accu- 
mulation represent  the  various  degrees  of  adjustment,  it 
does  so  fully,  only  where  the  fruits  of  this  adjustment  are 
allowed  to  flow  freely  but  unabated  by  accessory  conditions 
unto  those  so  adjusted.  Thus  the  day  laborer,  the  mechanic, 
artisan  and  farmer  as  a  class  seem  to  be  at  the  lower  base  of 
the  scale  of  economic  adjustment.  But  where  there  is  natu- 
ral want  or  suffering  here  the  cause  or  causes  will  be  found  to 
be  less  elsewhere  than  in  mere  lack  of  adjustment  in  this  par- 
ticular field,  that  is  in  the  economic  field.  Education  both 
moral  and  mental  will  do  much  to  effect  a  more  general 


36  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

economic  adjustment,  that  is,  will  do  much  equally  to  dis- 
tribute the  per  capita  wealth  of  the  world,  though  because 
of  other  forms  that  combine  to  produce  results  economic- 
ally this  will  never  be  fully  attained  even  under  imperfect 
economic  adjustment. 

Civil  Adjustment.  In  civil  adjustment  the  danger  is  from 
the  demagogue  and  the  professional  politician.  To  avoid 
the  sweet  antidotes  of  the  one  and  the  panaceas  for  all  po- 
litical ills  of  the  other,  is  the  aim  of  education  in  seeking 
to  accomplish  adjustment  to  the  civic  environment.  The 
true  statesman  represents  the  man  most  perfectly  adjusted 
to  the  civil  environment.  Here  as  elsewhere  are  the  dangers 
of  lack  of  adjustment  present.  The  pillars  of  free  govern- 
ment, freedom  of  life,  freedom  of  property,  rights  and  justice, 
all  are  to  be  safe  guarded  if  government  is  to  be  maintained. 
To  bring  this  about  the  fullest  harmony  in  adjustment  must 
prevail.  Of  all  governments  popular  governments  are  the 
most  constantly  in  danger  from  the  evil  consequences  of  lack 
of  adjustment.  It  was  in  this  necessity  that  public  or  state 
education  was  undertaken.  The  hope  of  the  state  lies  in 
popular  education,  to  teach  individuals  their  civic  duties  and 
responsibilities  and  to  give  them  a  full  appreciation  of  their 
seriousness.  It  was  in  the  realization  of  this  burden  en- 
cumbent upon  it  that  the  state  first  saw  the  need  of  con- 
trolling and  directing  certain  forms  of  education  and  seeing 
to  it  that  certain  conceptions  of  the  state  and  its  duties  and 
relationship  be  given  to  the  citizenship.  It  was  in  realizing 
how  vitally  such  education  affected  its  own  existence  and 
wellbeing  that  it  consented  to  grapple  with  the  church  over 
this  form  of  education. 

Social  Adjustment.  Adjustment  to  the  social  environment 
is  both  varied  and  intricate.  Because  of  the  ramifications 
of  the  general  social  problems,  social  adjustment  involves 
all  that  has  already  been  said  and  more  too.  The  social 
environment  is  in  a  state  of  unstable  equilibrium.  It  is  al- 
ways active  and  we  believe  always  progressive.  Here  ad- 
justment is  paramount.  We  must  be  adjusted  to  every  re- 
lation into  which  we  come  in  association  with  our  fellows. 
Adjustment  there  must  be,  to  our  political  institutions,  our 


The  Nature  and  Aim  of  Education  37 

ecclesiastical  institutions  and  our  educational  institutions. 
Those  unadjusted  to  the  social  environment  are  sometimes 
ignored,  sometimes  ostracized,  sometimes  banished  and  at 
other  times  imprisoned  and  even  whether  legally  or  illegally, 
deprived  of  life.  Full  adjustment  here  means  social  con- 
tentment, social  happiness.  It  means  complete  living.  If 
education  could  bring  about  complete  adjustment  here  all 
other  forms  of  adjustment  would  have  been  achieved.  All 
that  is  evil  and  corrupt  in  society,  all  that  makes  for  social 
disorder  would  have  been  removed.  The  golden  rule  would 
be  in  vogue  working  smoothly.  The  day  of  the  millennium 
would  be  at  hand.  Of  course  this  will  hardly  be  possible 
in  the  actual  and  yet  education  can  and  will  accomplish 
slowly  a  general  social  adjustment. 

Equal  Opportunity,  Besides  these  various  forms  of  ad- 
justment which  education  aims  to  effect,  there  are  other  aims 
in  education  that  are  as  far  reaching  in  their  results  as  ad- 
justment and  perhaps  even  more  fundamental.  One  of  these 
aims  is  to  create  equal  power  over  circumstances.  Since  no 
two  men  are  alike  either  physically  or  mentally  and  since 
no  two  of  them  react  alike  against  natural  forces  their  op- 
portunity and  their  power  over  circumstance  are  limited 
in  various  degress  at  the  very  outset  by  nature.  It  is  with- 
out this  realm  of  natural  difference,  in  opportunity  and 
power  over  circumstance,  that  education  aims  to  be  effective. 
It  is  a  fact  that  education  can  overcome  the  limitations  of 
nature.  And  it  is  in  giving  to  all  the  same  or  equal  oppor- 
tunity to  improve  and  use  what  they  have  by  nature  that 
education  is  to  give  equal  opportunity  and  equal  power  over 
circumstance.  All  human  institutions  teem  with  the  human 
element.  This  human  element  is  selfishness.  All  govern- 
ments are  built  mostly  upon  clannishness,  caste  and  favorit- 
ism. This  is  true  even  in  a  republic,  though  least  of  all 
there.  In  giving  equal  opportunity  and  equal  power  over 
circumstance,  education  aims  to  place  all  as  nearly  as 
possible  on  a  basis  of  individual  merit.  In  doing  this  educa- 
tion has  had  to  combat  the  idea  that  all  men  are  created 
equal.  But  while  in  government  this  tenet  is  necessary  for 
justice  to  prevail  and  is  absolutely  true  before  the  law,  as  a 


38  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

principle   of  psychology  it  is   hardly   tenable.     The   minds 
and  bodies  of  men  differ  infinitely.     This  difference  however, 
we  hold  is  not  so  great  as  we  are  inclined  to  grant  nor  does 
it  count  for  the  great  differences  in  quality  in  individual 
minds.     There  is  a  great  disparity  mentally  between  men 
and  also  between  their  achievements.     But  is  there  "  a  di- 
vinity in  some  of  us  that  makes  us  great  whether  we  will  it 
or  no  "  which  the  others  of  us  do  not  possess  ?     If  there  is 
such  a  divinity  there  it  certainly  does  not  do  much  for  us 
apart  from  opportunity  and  circumstance.     The  real  fact 
is  that  though  the  intellect  may  be  better  in  some  than  in 
others  from  its  dependence  upon  the  physical  organism  or 
even  if  we  assume  that  it  is  an  entity  capable  of  independent 
existence  yet  when  through  education  equal  opportunity  and 
equal  power  over  circumstance  is  given,  efforts  to  prove  this 
difference  in  mental  quality  show  very  varying  and  uncer- 
tain results.     Not  that  there  is  any  reason  to  claim  that  the 
intelligence  of  all  is  equal.     The  difference  in  intelligence  is 
too  great  to  be  for  a  moment  called  into  question.     But  this 
difference  is  not  traceable  so  much  to  the  differences  in  the 
mind  itself  as  to  its  access  to,  acquaintance  with,  and  ability 
to   use   the  materials   of   civilization   in   the   acquisition   of 
knowledge.     Locke  was  undoubtedly  within  the  range  of  truth 
when  he  compared  the  mind  to  a  sheet  of  paper  on  which 
everything  that  it  was  to  contain  had  yet  to  be  written.     But 
Ward  who  went  him  one  step  further  and  compared  the  mind 
to  soil  into  which  seed  was  to  be  planted  and  cultivated  struck 
at  the  fundamental  verity  of  the  problem.     Great  minds, 
"  men  of  genius,"  are  not  so  much  born  so  (by  nature)  as 
they  are  made  so  (by  nurture).     Many  men  have  no  access 
to   and   skill   in   the  accumulated   knowledge   of   their   day. 
Many  of  those  who  have  such  access  lose  their  opportunity 
for  superiority  by  default  in  time  and  energy.     They  waste 
their  opportunity  by  not  taking  the  best  advantage  of  it 
whether  through  ignorance  or   inability.     Throughout  the 
entire  strata  of  society  those  members  of  society  who  have 
acquired  varying  elevations  among  their  fellows  are  those 
who  have  been  able  to  possess  in  correspondingly  varying 
degrees  the  intellectual  and  material  "  heritage  of  the  past  " 


The  Nature  and  Aim  of  Education  89 

and  used  their  possessions  to  the  best  of  their  "  knowledge  and 
ability."  Of  course,  most  of  them  possess  this  heritage  in 
varying  degrees,  but  wherever  they  have  gained  the  as- 
cendency they  have  been  found  to  have  possessed  certain 
amounts  of  the  heritage  and  to  have  used  it.  The  fact  that 
there  have  been  so  few  great  minds  is  due  to  the  meager 
transmission  and  slight  diffusion  of  the  accumulated  knowl- 
edge, to  the  poor  organization  of  society  and:  to  the  compara- 
tively small  number  who  have  gained  access  to  the  stored 
experience  of  the  human  race.  But  this  is  the  aim  of  edu- 
cation, namely,  to  equalize  the  opportunity  of  all  in  their 
access  to  the  accumulated  knowledge  of  the  race  and  to  give 
to  one  and  all  alike  equal  opportunity  to  acquire  skill  in  the 
use  of  its  material  achievement. 

It  was  stated  above  under  the  head  of  economic  adjust- 
ment that  some  men  through  the  control  of  large  influences 
obtain  adjustments  that  are  not  rightly  theirs  and  because 
of  this  unfair  advantage  and  profit  would  seek  to  thwart  the 
aim  of  education  in  bringing  about  adjustment.  This  con- 
stitutes the  chief  objection  to  popular  education  in  certain 
minds.  The  principal  reason  for  the  argument  of  the  dif- 
ference in  the  capacity  of  individuals  is  that  there  is  present 
in  such  minds  a  tacit  knowledge  that  the  equal  opportunity 
which  education  gives  will  rob  them  of  their  advantage  and 
prevent  the  further  exploitation  of  the  ignorant  by  the  in- 
telligent, of  the  socially  low  by  the  socially  high.  But  this  is 
and  must  be  the  fundamental  aim  of  education.  Herein  lies 
one  of  its  chief  virtues.  Especially  should  it  serve  this  end 
in  republics  where  the  laws  are  made  by  the  popular  will  as 
expressed  in  the  casting  of  the  ballot  and  where  an  equal  op- 
portunity in  life  and  its  good  is  vouchsafed  to  all. 

From  the  foregoing  it  would  follow  that  since  men  are 
born  into  the  world  under  the  present  regime  in  all  strata 
of  society  and  in  all  social  conditions  and  must  struggle  from 
under  the  burdens  and  hindrances  of  these  conditions  it  must 
follow  that  if  education  accomplishes  its  aim  of  equalizing 
opportunity  and  of  giving  access  to  and  skill  in  the  use  of 
the  intellectual  and  material  accumulations  circumstances 
of  race  it  must  also  give  them  power  over  the  circumstances 


40  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

of  life.  That  we  are  all  "  creatures  of  circumstance  "  is  a 
truth  that  man  has  had  forced  upon  him  by  the  ravaging 
experience  of  countless  ages.  Many  experiments  have  been 
made  to  show  the  effect  of  circumstance  upon  the  human 
mind.  The  most  noted  of  such  experiments  are  those  of 
Psammetichus  with  the  two  new  born  babies,  of  Kasper 
Hauser,  Rauber  and  Father  Xavier,  the  Indian  Missionary. 
Besides  the  experiments  here  referred  to  there  are  any  number 
of  authors  who  have  become  acquainted  with  these  effects. 
In  this  regard  Confucius  wrote,  "  We  very  nearly  resemble 
each  other  by  nature;  condition  separates  us  very  far." 
Adam  Smith  in  his  "  Wealth  of  Nations  "  said  "  The  differ- 
ences between  the  most  dissimilar  characters,  between  a 
philosopher  and  a  common  street  porter  for  example,  seem 
to  arise  not  so  much  from  nature  as  from  habit,  custom  and 
education."  Helvetius  gives  us  the  same  thought,  "  We  see 
in  the  same  way  that  their  (the  citizens')  elevation  or  their 
decline,  their  good  fortune  or  misfortune  are  the  products  of 
a  combination  of  circumstances."  To  all  of  this  Henry 
George  adds  "  The  influence  of  heredity,  which  it  is  now  the 
fashion  to  rate  so  highly  is  as  nothing  compared  with  the  in- 
fluences which  mould  the  man  after  he  comes  into  the  world." 
Give,  then,  the  fact  that  circumstances  are  a  power  in  deter- 
mining the  success  or  failure  of  an  individual  his  achievement 
or  non-achievement,  how  is  education  to  give  man  influence 
over  this  circumstance?  The  aim  of  education,  that  of  giving 
man  power  over  circumstance,  may  be  accomplished  in  any  one 
of  the  four  different  ways.  First  it  will  show  him  the  achieve- 
ments of  men  during  the  past  and  tell  him  how  these  were 
accomplished.  Secondly,  it  will  show  him  what  the  achieve- 
ments of  the  immediate  future  will  probably  be  by  showing 
him  the  most  pressing  human  needs.  Thirdly  it  may  by 
proper  guidance  through  a  series  of  protectionary  and  ex- 
perimental activities  discover  and  develop  his  peculiar  fit- 
ness for  certain  kinds  of  achievement.  Last,  but  not  least, 
education  may  show  him  how  to  acquire  skill  in  the  methods 
of  endeavor  and  in  the  use  of  instruments  so  that  he  may 
achieve. 

While  it  is  true  that  there  are  not  a  few  achievements  that 


The  Nature  and  Aim  of  Education  41 

have  brought  much  good  to  mankind  and  unlimited  prom- 
inence to  the  individual  who  has  been  accredited  with  the 
achievement,  still  we  do  not  hold  that  such  men  are  truly 
great  nor  that  their  accidental  discoveries  are  achievements 
in  the  true  sense  of  the  word.  What  is  meant  by  achieve- 
ments are  the  accomplishments  preconceived  and  sought  by 
means  fully  known  to  the  subject.  In  this  sense,  no  mind, 
it  matters  not  how  potent  the  capacities  are  that  are  latent 
within  it  can  either  know  the  avenues  of  achievements,  the 
value  of  it  to  himself  or  to  his  fellows,  nor  how  he  may  get 
into  the  proper  channel  of  activity  without  having  a  definite 
knowledge  of  what  he  wishes  to  do  and  how  he  may  set  to 
work  to  do  it.  For  it  is  obvious  that  no  man  can  intelli- 
gently set  to  work  to  pursue  a  given  line  of  endeavor  or  re- 
search, much  less  can  he  decide  to  employ  certain  means  in 
a  given  way  when  he  does  not  know  that  the  work  is  to  be 
done,  nor  how  he  is  to  set  out  to  do  it.  For  as  Leslie  Ward 
well  says,  "  There  has  been  no  discoverer  so  great  in  the 
world  as  to  owe  nothing  to  this  circumstance  (initial  ac- 
quaintance with  the  given  field  of  labor),  none  who  might 
not  have  lived  and  died  in  the  profoundest  obscurity  had 
not  some  external  force  first  lifted  him  to  the  height,  how- 
ever humble,  from  which  he  was  able  more  or  less  clearly  to 
overlook  the  field  of  his  future  labors;  none  who  had  he 
chanced  to  live  in  another  land  or  a  prior  age  could  have 
achieved  results  which  he  was  enabled  to  achieve  under  the 
actual  circumstances."  But  education  aims  to  give  all  an 
equal  chance  to  see  what  things  in  life  have  been  done,  what 
are  to  be  done,  how  they  have  been  and  may  be  done  and  to 
arouse  the  proper  feeling  necessary  to  enter  upon  them  and 
push  them  on  to  their  successful  conclusion.  After  this  the 
individual  must  act  for  himself.  But  this  is  just  what, 
according  to  the  premises  that  he  is  educated,  he  is  both 
capable  and  desirous  of  doing. 

These  then  are  some  of  the  aims  of  education.  It  will  be 
many  a  day  before  they  will  be  attained.  But  they  can  con- 
stitute the  goal  toward  which  educational  endeavor  may  be 
directed.  Progress  toward  it  will  be  slow  and  at  times  al- 
most imperceptible.     Still  there  must  be  no  faltering.     The 


42  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

great  forces  of  nature  in  mind  and  body  never  grow  weary, 
never  grow  less.  They  issue  constantly  in  action.  Educa- 
tion must  direct  and  control  the  progress  of  the  human 
family.  The  aims  for  review  we  may  sum  up  briefly  here. 
They  are: 

To  prepare  for  self-preservation. 

To  prepare  for  self-maintenance  —  gaining  a  livelihood. 

To  prepare  for  self-recreation  —  reproduction  parent- 
hood. 

To  prepare  for  civic  and  social  relationship. 

To  prepare  for  cultured  and  refined  living. 

To  give  equal  opportunity  to  all  to  acquire  knowledge  and 
skill  in  the  use  of  the  material  of  the  world. 

To  give  equal  power  over  the  circumstances  of  life  and 
living. 

Many  other  aims  of  education  might  be  mentioned  here, 
but  these  are  considered  primary  and  as  such  sufficient  here. 
With  this  we  pass  on  to  the  nature  and  application  of  educa- 
tion. 

THE  NATURE  AND  APPLICATION  OE  EDUCATION 
(b)  THE  NATURE  OF  EDUCATION 

In  treating  of  the  "  Aim  of  Education  "  we  saw  certain 
phases  of  the  problem  of  education  that  are  to  be  traced 
directly  to  the  nature  of  the  thing  to  be  dealt  with  in  educa- 
tion, namely,  the  human  mind.  In  the  various  forms  of  ad- 
justments to  be  attempted  and  made,  in  equalizing  the  oppor- 
tunity of  all  and  in  giving  to  all  equal  power  of  control  over 
circumstances  in  all  things  in  which  education  has  to  be  at- 
tained, the  question  of  its  nature  plays  a  prominent  part. 
In  education  as  understood  here,  we  deal  with  the  human 
mind  and  body,  man  as  an  organization.  In  the  first  place 
the  mind  comes  into  the  world,  limited  in  regard  to  the  kind 
of  education  which  it  can  take  in,  but  besides  being  limited 
in  the  way  it  comes  into  the  world,  it  is  limited  both  in  ca- 
pacity and  the  nature  of  its  "  educability  "  by  the  instincts 
and  tendencies  which  is  its  by  inheritance  from  the  ancestral 
relic  of  racial  experience  now  recorded  in  the  structure  of 
the  descendants  as  racial  history.     The  sense  media  of  the 


The  Nature  and  Aim  of  Education  43 

mind  through  which  education  is  accomplished  for  example, 
are  all  predetermined  and  arranged  and  to  a  certain  extent 
have  their  natural  capacities  in  educational  activity  already 
limited.  In  like  manner  the  bodily  energy  is  restricted  in 
quantity  and  its  sources  of  supply  between  which  and  the 
power  of  action  of  the  mind  there  is  close  and  acute  relation 
are  likewise  limited.  The  mind  itself  is  restricted  in  its 
activity  to  material  furnished  by  the  senses  and  though  it 
be  granted  that  given  this  sense  material  as  a  basis,  the  dis- 
tance to  which  the  mind  may  go  is  only  distantly  restricted, 
still  all  will  admit  that  in  its  action  it  is  limited  and  strictly 
so,  to  the  material  of  the  senses.  By  the  nature  of  the  mind, 
then,  the  nature  of  the  adjustments,  their  limitations  and 
possibilities,  in  education  are  definitely  determined.  Cer- 
tain extraneous  elements  and  changed  conditions  enter  at 
various  times  to  change  and  check  the  process  of  education, 
others  enter  again  to  modify  and  increase  it.  Too,  in  the 
natural  order  of  things  mind  bears  a  static  as  well  as  dynamic 
relation  to  mind.  When  either  of  these  relations  between 
minds  change  the  process  of  education  undergoes  a  change 
that  retards  it  or  advances  it.  We  have  just  referred  to 
static  and  dynamic  states  of  mind,  without  destroying  the 
correspondence  we  might  also  mention  the  inertia  of  mind. 
The  inertia  of  mind  affects  the  process  of  education  every- 
where. All  reformers  and  agitators  among  men  will  attest 
freely  to  the  inertia  of  mind.  In  education  we  find  it  pre- 
sented chiefly  in  adherence  to  the  old  and  the  established 
order.  The  greatest  problem  of  education  is  to  arrest  the 
direction  and  rate  of  motion  in  education  and  modify  and 
change  it  into  other  directions.  Minds  like  bodies  tend  to 
take  the  line  of  least  resistance.  Only  in  the  case  of  mind 
this  line  of  least  resistance  mostly  becomes  the  line  of  great- 
est pleasure.  It  is  strange  sometimes  to  see  what  some  minds 
call  pleasure,  but  their  lines  of  action  in  education  is  the 
line  of  greatest  pleasure,  either  immediate  pleasure  or  remote 
pleasure  anticipated  in  the  present.  In  the  inertia  of  mind, 
however,  we  have  an  element,  the  element  of  choice,  which 
does  not  enter,  at  least  as  intelligence,  into  the  inertia  of 
matter.     Education  would  not  have  such  a  problem  in  the 


44  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

inertia  of  mind  if  it  were  not  that  it  had  to  overcome  the 
element  of  choice  in  arresting  and  changing  the  line  and  rate 
of  motion.  Fear,  love,  hate,  envy,  jealousy,  etc.,  all  enter 
to  affect  and  either  stay  or  deflect  the  mind.  All  of  these 
education  must  overcome,  if  it  is  to  achieve  its  end.  Some 
show  up  at  one  place,  time  and  under  one  circumstance,  others 
at  and  under  another,  all  of  them  however,  are  innately  a 
part  of  education  and  its  problems,  all  of  them  as  such  must 
be  accepted  and  dealt  with  either  individually  or  collectively, 
or  both,  by  education.  Because,  then,  of  the  nature  of  edu- 
cation, of  the  nature  of  the  mind  in  education,  there  is  much 
that  it  will  have  to  overcome.  In  and  through  it  all  pa- 
tience, love,  perseverance  and  effort  must  control  if  any- 
thing is  to  be  accomplished.  Some  of  the  things  which 
arise  in  education  through  its  nature  are  the  hindrances  to 
which  it  is  subject,  its  limits,  the  sources  from  which  educa- 
tional opportunity  must  come,  both  direct  and  contributory 
and  its  relation  to  them. 

Hindrances  to  Education.  Apart  from  the  fact  that  edu- 
cation as  a  process  must  be  repeated  in  the  life  history  of 
each  individual  there  are  other  influences  that  materially  re- 
tard education  either  by  misapplying  the  knowledge  gotten 
or  restricting  the  quantity  and  despoiling  the  quality  of  it. 
Because  of  such  effects  these  are  known  as  hindrances  to 
education.  Chief  among  these  hindrances  are  tradition,  su- 
perstition and  prejudice. 

Tradition  has  always  been  a  bane  to  advance  thought  and 
to  progress  in  general.  Its  chief  characteristic  is  that  it 
lives  exultingly  but  reverently  in  the  past.  Everything  that 
looks  to  the  future  with  its  ceaseless  changes  tending  to 
growth  and  progress  is  of  necessity  to  be  condemned.  The 
dictum  that  the  education  of  the  fathers  is  ideal  and  all  dis- 
position to  turn  from  it  or  reach  beyond  it  is  wrong  and 
should  be  assiduously  crushed  as  leading  to  woe  and  destruc- 
tion, is  its  stronghold.  It  throttles  individuality  and  chokes 
the  spirit  of  investigation  and  research.  How  long  tradi- 
tion held  China  and  Japan  in  bondage  is  a  fact  of  history 
too  well  known  to  all  students  to  need  mentioning  here.  Our 
own  Southland  is  just  beginning  to  overcome  the  retarding 


The  Nature  and  Aim  of  Education  45 

effects  of  a  tradition  which  it  holds  dear  but  which  has  for 
several  decades  held  it  bound  to  a  past  that  was  and  is  de- 
structive of  much  of  the  best  that  is  in  her  and  stifles  all  at- 
tempts to  move  upward  in  progress.  The  tradition  of  which 
many  old  families  are  proud  and  to  some  extent  perhaps 
justly  so  is  still  a  hindrance  to  advancement.  Traditions 
are  relics  mostly  of  a  neglected  and  forgotten  past  and  out 
of  time  with  the  demands  of  the  new  and  progressing  present. 
Traditions  are  either  negative  or  positive.  Positive  tradi- 
tions possess  in  them  almost  the  sum  total  of  that  which  is 
good  in  tradition.  Negative  traditions  are  generally  harm- 
ful especially  where  the}r  prevent  the  individual  from  meet- 
ing the  legitimate  demands  made  upon  him  by  his  day  and 
generation.  Most  traditions  are  met  in  education  as  nega- 
tive effects  either  retarding  the  work  of  the  school,  modify- 
ing and  changing  it  or  in  some  rare  cases  successfully  op- 
posing it.  Sometimes  they  are  met  openly,  sometimes  they 
constitute  a  silent  and  secret  but  strong  undercurrent  re- 
active against  education  and  educative  progress.  Positively 
they  serve  to  bind  us  to  the  past  and  thereby  prevent  the  fu- 
ture from  running  away  with  things.  To  this  extent  they 
are  meritorious.  Negatively  they  exclude  change  and 
thereby  prevent  progress.  Their  danger  lies  in  their  nega- 
tive attitude  wherein  is  mental  stagnation  and  death. 

Superstition.  There  are  certain  things  demanded  in  our 
thought  and  action  that  are  fundamental  and  that  are  de- 
manded by  our  very  nature.  If  they  are  not  given  us  through 
one  source  we  create  them  for  ourselves  through  other 
sources.  Chief  among  these  are  the  thought  and  action 
that  cluster  in  and  around  the  idea  of  causation.  Next  to 
the  disposition  to  find  a  cause  is  the  problem  of  finding  out 
how  these  causes  operate. 

In  the  discovery  of  these  two  things  lies  the  beginning  of 
all  superstition.  A  cause  for  all  manifestations  the  mind 
is  under  compulsion  by  nature  to  seek.  If  the  legitimate, 
sufficient  and  final  cause  cannot  be  found,  in  its  place  will  be 
substituted  any  cause  which  to  that  stage  of  development  of 
the  mind  will  be  accepted  as  sufficient.  The  lower  down  the 
scale  of  intelligence  we  are  t}ie  less  do  we  know  of  real  and 


46  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

efficient  cause  and  the  more  are  we  compelled  to  accept  sub- 
stitutes for  them.  But  it  is  this  tendency  to  accept  substi- 
tutes for  real  but  unknown  causes  that  constitutes  supersti- 
tion par  excellence.  The  less  we  know  of  the  true  natural 
cause  the  more  are  we  prone  to  offer  instead  causes  that  while 
artificial  seem  to  us  sufficient.  The  more  superstitious  we 
are,  the  more  are  we  inclined  to  link  phenomena  with  crude 
and  insufficient  causes.  Not  knowing  the  fundamental  na- 
ture of  things  nor  their  laws  of  action  we  accept  plausible 
explanations  of  causes  without  being  able  to  detect  their 
actual  untenability.  The  earliest  evidences  of  mind  seem 
already  to  have  ideas  of  world  order  regulated  either  by  man, 
subman  or  superman.  Where  man  does  not  appear  as  a 
sufficient  cause  the  sub-  or  superman  is  accepted.  With 
mind  and  superstition  has  come  religion.  The  more  super- 
stitious man  is  the  more  religious  is  he.  The  more  super- 
stitious he  is  the  more  readily  does  he  accept  the  superficial 
causes  as  explanation  for  the  observed  order.  But  if  this 
were  all,  the  problem  of  education  would  not  be  so  difficult. 
The  difficulty  of  the  problem  lies  in  the  fact  that  superstitions 
soon  become  sacred,  are  absorbed  in  public  morals  and  de- 
velop for  themselves  a  strange  zeal  that  not  only  antagonizes 
but  often  successfully  defies  education.  To  root  out  super- 
stition is  always  an  early  but  sometimes  slow  and  tedious 
process  of  education.  For  much  that  is  sometimes  called 
education  is  training  in  the  nature  of  justification  in  tradi- 
tion. 

The  subject  matter  given  under  hindrances  to  education 
would  not  be  complete  without  including  the  mental  state 
known  as  prejudice  in  them.  In  the  light  of  education  as  a 
process  tradition  is  bad,  superstition  worse,  but  prejudice 
is  the  worst  of  all  of  these  especially  in  that  it  offers  opposi- 
tion to  the  advance  of  knowledge  through  education.  Preju- 
dice has  little  psychological  justification  and  perhaps  less 
psychological  explanation.  Few  of  us  can  account  for  its 
presence  in  our  mental  make  up,  we  have  it  all  of  us  who 
have  mind,  but  just  why  or  how,  none  can  tell.  It  just  seems 
to  be  a  kind  of  natural  bend  in  mind,  now  inclining  to  this 
line  of  thought  and  action,  now  to  that,     It  is  just  a  mental 


The  Nature  and  Aim  of  Education  4?7 

bias  that  seems  to  be  present  simply  by  the  nature  of  our 
entire  mental  content,  makes  us  think,  feel  and  act  in  a  cer- 
tain way  without  our  learning  why.  In  some  it  manifests 
itself  in  one  way  and  in  others  in  other  ways.  Its  explana- 
tion lies  probably  in  the  fact  that  our  mental  life  is  influenced 
by  our  past  experiences,  the  kind  of  habits  of  thought  and 
action  we  have  formed  and  the  relating  of  our  present 
thoughts  and  actions  to  our  general  well  being.  That  is, 
what  we  think,  how  we  think  it  and  what  we  do  is  to  a  consider- 
able extent  determined  by  our  past  experience  and  our  habits. 
This  is  negative  prejudice.  This  is  not  the  difficult  side  of 
prejudice  to  education.  In  fact  education  can  only  succeed 
slowly  with  it  in  as  much  as  it  is  also  passive.  It  is  the  prej- 
udice that  is  active  that  is  difficult  but  with  which  educa- 
tion must  deal,  the  kind  that  is  willful.  Where  one  wills 
to  take  a  certain  view  and  hold  it  against  opposition,  decide 
that  something  is  so  and  then  rule  out  all  evidence  that  would 
convince  one  to  the  contrary  that  is  the  attitude  of  mind 
that  is  dangerous.  Here  the  problem  of  education  is  par- 
ticularly difficult.  Such  people  are  prejudiced  to  knowledge 
because  they  don't  know  and  do  not  wish  to  know,  in  fact 
refuse  to  know. 

In  education  we  have  to  do  with  all  three,  tradition,  super- 
stition and  prejudice  and  must  seek  to  overcome  them. 
Parents  teeming  with  race  and  family  tradition,  resent  any 
attempt  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  remove  the  idea  from 
the  child's  mind.  Being  superstitious  no  one  not  one  of  them 
or  not  one  who  can  win  their  confidence  can  successfully  ap- 
peal to  them.  While  on  the  other  hand  one  who  is  of  them 
will  probably  feel  and  think  as  they  do  about  them  and  have 
little  or  no  disposition  to  attempt  their  removal.  If  all  such 
could  maintain  an  open  mind  the  education  of  them  would  be 
an  easy  matter.  But  first  the  wrong  conception  must  be  re- 
moved and  the  right  one  substituted.  This  is  both  a  difficult 
and  delicate  task.  Sometimes  it  is  impossible  to  accomplish 
anything  with  the  minds  which  entertain  these  thoughts. 
Then  education  can  only  succeed  by  working  upon  those  minds 
into  which  they  have  not  entered  or  having  entered  have  little 
or  no  hold.     In  either  case  the  task  lies  in  so  performing 


48  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

the  operation  as  to  retain  the  confidence  of  the  subject. 
Each  is  married  to  his  idol  and  clings  tenaciously  to  it.  The 
burden  of  education  is  to  remove  the  old,  win  over  to  the 
new  and  give  instruction  in  it. 

The  Limits  of  Education.  While  education  must  begin 
anew  with  each  individual  the  extent  to  which  a  person  can 
be  educated  has  never  been  determined.  No  person  has  ever 
been  educated  to  the  limit.  Though  if  the  mind  is  mortal 
there  must  be  a  limit  to  its  capacity  to  those  who  hold  the 
mind  as  immortal  there  will  of  necessity  be  no  limit  in  this 
world  to  its  capacity  for  knowledge.  Knowledge  when  con- 
densed may  be  easily  imparted.  That  which  it  has  taken 
decades  to  discover  or  work  out,  the  merest  youth  of  to-day 
may  learn  fully  and  generally  does  learn  in  a  few  hours.  Be- 
sides that  knowledge  is  not  spatial,  nor  is  it  restricted  within 
spatial  limits.  Though  the  brain  and  body  which  contain  the 
mind  and  furnish  it  with  the  media  for  gaining  knowledge  are 
spatial  as  well  as  temporal  the  mind  itself  is  not  by  all  so  re- 
garded, and  hence  cannot  necessarily  be  said  to  be  limited 
in  this  way.  Though  since  its  media  and  abode  are  so  limited 
it  might  be  concluded  that  as  far  as  this  world  is  concerned 
the  mind  is  limited  likewise  in  its  capacity  for  knowledge  get- 
ting. From  this  view  point,  however,  it  can  still  be  truth- 
fully said  that  no  one  has  yet  been  educated  to  the  fullest 
extent  of  his  capacity.  From  this  view  point  then  at  least 
theoretically,  though  every  person  has  a  limit  in  obtaining 
education,  no  such  limit  in  practice  has  ever  been  reached. 
However,  every  person's  capacity  for  education  is  limited 
only  by  the  field  of  knowledge  itself,  the  physical  endurance 
of  the  individual  in  pursuing  knowledge  and  his  intellectual 
capacity  for  imbibing  it  coupled  with  the  years  he  spends  in 
the  process  or  the  number  of  years  in  his  normal  waking  life. 
The  entire  known  field  of  knowledge  has  never  been  acquired 
by  any  human  being  to  date,  consequently  the  intellectual 
capacity  of  man  has  never  been  fully  attained  though  in 
many  cases  the  physical  limitations  by  strain  and  excess  has 
often  been  reached  and  passed.     No  teacher,  therefore,  need 


The  Nature  and  Aim  of  Education  49 

fear  that  he  will  carry  an  individual  beyond  his  capacity  for 
knowledge.  The  danger  lies  more  in  the  opposite  direction 
—  that  the  individual  will  not  be  educated  at  all  up  to  the 
limits  of  his  capacity.  Too,  there  is  some  danger  in  ex- 
tensive education  in  one  field  to  the  neglect  of  it  in  other 
fields.  Oftentimes  in  cases  where  practical  knowledge  is 
most  necessary,  because  of  fake  standards  and  ideas  of  liv- 
ing, the  practical  is  neglected  for  the  liberal,  the  luxurious 
and  the  theoretical  in  education.  Care  should,  however,  be 
exercised  always  that  the  physical  endurance  of  the  individual 
which  even  in  the  strongest,  is  limited,  be  not  over  reached. 
Every  now  and  then  through  this  source  local  and  general 
school  processes  come  in  for  severe  and  oftentimes  just  criti- 
cism. The  limitation  of  individuals  in  this  capacity  is  al- 
ways a  matter  of  serious  concern  to  educators. 

Sources  of  Educational  Opportunity.  Opportunity  for 
education  is  given  through  three  chief  sources  namely,  the 
church,  the  state  and  society.  Education  looks  to  the  uplift 
of  humanity.  That  is  originally  and  primarily  the  Church. 
Long  before  government  as  such  was  a  clearly  established  in- 
stitution and  the  state  itself  as  such  had  existence,  the  church 
as  an  ecclesiastical  institution  held  sway  over  human  des- 
tinies. What  little  systematic  education  there  was  existing 
among  early  people  was  under  the  control  and  direction  of 
the  church  and  generally  offered  exclusively  to  the  officers 
of  the  church.  All  education  then  consisted  of  instructions 
in  church  lore  and  church  literature.  Even  to-day  among 
the  savage  and  barbarous  peoples  and  in  some  cases  among 
civilized  people  the  church  through  the  clergy  is  the  chief 
possessor  and  disseminator  of  extant  knowledge.  Not  only 
has  the  church  always  possessed  itself  of  all  extant  knowledge, 
but  when  the  intellectual  advancement  of  man  seemed  threat- 
ened with  destruction  and  all  forms  of  knowledge  seemed 
abandoned  to  itself  to  perish  the  church  gathered  unto  itself 
the  precious  truths  of  humanity  and  treasured  them  away, 
perpetuating  them  within  itself  until  it  could  safely  give 
them  out  again  to  the  world.  In  this  way  in  the  troubled 
middle  ages  the  church  was  exclusively  the  educational  in- 


50  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

stitution  and  remained  so  for  centuries.  Finally  as  church 
and  state  separated,  the  state  took  on  a  certain  phase  of 
education  and  disseminated  it,  until  to-day  the  phases  of 
education  given  out  by  the  church  are  in  many  instances  at 
variance  with  that  of  the  state.  Too,  most  of  the  educational 
institutions  to  which  the  state  had  access  were  under  the  direct 
control  of  the  church.  The  oldest  schools  in  this  country 
were  established  by  denominations  and  many  of  our  present 
colleges  and  universities  owe  their  origin  and  present  sup- 
port to  ecclesiastical  organizations.  However,  the  tendency 
at  present  is  toward  educational  opportunity  furnished  by 
the  state  and  state  institutions  are  already  eclipsing  so-called 
church  schools  in  size,  support  and  patronage. 

The  church's  real  interest  in  education  and  its  chief  claim 
to  prominence  in  education  is  because  of  the  moral  influence 
it  wields  thereby.  In  periods  of  unrest  and  disturbance 
the  church  has  always  acted  as  a  bulwark  of  human  rights 
and  liberties,  however  crudely  conceived.  By  its  possession 
of  knowledge  it  has  served  to  direct,  guide  and  hold  in  check 
rebellious  natures.  This  is  the  church's  justification  in  of- 
fering to  the  world  opportunity  for  education. 

As  the  state  advanced  in  civilization  (knowledge)  and  the 
church  and  state  grew  apart,  in  the  resulting  conflict  of  au- 
thority and  rights  the  state  was  forced  to  provide  an  edu- 
cation of  its  own  for  itself.  At  first  the  education  differed 
but  slightly  from  that  offered  by  the  church  and  statesmen 
were  chiefly  churchmen.  Gradually  the  breach  between 
church  and  state  in  political  education  widened.  In  this 
condition  defense  from  foreign  and  domestic  enemies  caused 
the  state  to  feel  keenly  the  need  of  supervising  the  education 
of  its  citizens.  The  value  of  this  was  exemplified  by  Sparta, 
Athens  and  Rome.  When  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  power  of 
the  papal  See  spread  over  nearly  all  Christendom,  state  educa- 
tion fell  somewhat  into  disuse.  But  with  the  break  between 
churcli  and  state  during  the  Revival  of  Learning  in  the  15th 
century  state  education  came  again  gradually  into  use.  To- 
day state  institutions  of  learning  greatly  predominate  in 
Australia,   Asia,   Africa,   Europe   and   America. 


The  Nature  and  Aim  of  Education  51 

EDUCATION    AS    RELATED    TO    GOVERNMENTAL 
INSTITUTIONS 

The  state  is  dependent  for  its  existence  upon  the  quality 
and  nature  of  its  citizenship.  Consequently  the  question  of 
education  and  educational  opportunity  is  with  the  state  a 
serious  one.  Each  state  offers  the  kind  of  educational  op- 
portunity that  will  best  serve  its  existing  political  institu- 
tions. Hence  the  educational  opportunity  offered  by  the 
various  states  will  vary  as  their  political  institutions  and  the 
civic  responsibilities  they  imply,  vary.  In  absolute  mon- 
archies education  will  differ  from  that  offered  by  a  limited 
monarchy  and  both  of  these  will  differ  in  many  essential  de- 
tails from  that  offered  by  various  republics.  The  less  the 
civic  responsibility  and  participation  in  government  allowed 
under  a  given  form  of  government  the  less  is  the  demand  for 
general  or  popular  education.  Conversely,  the  greater  the 
civic  responsibility  and  participation  in  government  granted 
a  people  under  a  given  form  of  government  the  greater  is  the 
demand  for  a  citizenship  enlightened  through  education. 
Especially  is  this  true  in  republics  where  the  successful  main- 
tenance of  stable  government  and  the  perpetuation  of  its 
various  institutions  of  the  state  devolves  directly  upon  its 
citizenship.  So  that  while  the  tendency  to-day  is  toward 
state  fostered  schools,  this  tendency  is  greatest  among  re- 
publics and  decreases  proportionately  as  the  form  of  govern- 
ment diverges  or  perhaps  better  recedes  in  form  from  that  of 
a  republic.  In  monarchies  whether  limited  or  unlimited  state 
education  is  not  extensive  where  the  reins  of  government  are 
under  the  control  of  certain  groups  of  citizens  by  heredity 
and  the  masses  though  in  the  majority  are  delegated  but  little 
participation  in  the  government.  In  those  government* 
where  the  masses  are  intended  for  service,  their  education  is 
correspondingly  an  education  for  service  and  indeed  for 
that  kind  of  service  which  the  governing  wish  the  governed 
to  render.  Our  education  is  an  education  for  service  too 
but  unlike  the  service  referred  to  above,  our  education  pre- 
pares for  voluntary  service  with  opportunity  given  to  all 
for  complete   freedom   of   action   and   achievement.     What 


52  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

service  one  renders  to  the  body  as  a  whole  is  determined  by 
condition  and  the  use  of  opportunity  and  not  by  the  selfish 
and  prejudicial  whim  of  the  governing. 

Education  by  Social  Contact.  The  educational  oppor- 
tunity which  society  offers  is  different  from  either  of  the 
two  described  above.  It  does  not  come  under  the  head  of 
education  in  its  narrow  or  scholastic  sense  but  belongs  rather 
to  education  in  its  broad  sense.  Since  society  came  before 
the  church  (other  views  notwithstanding  to  the  contrary) 
or  the  state,  the  educational  opportunity  offered  by  society 
in  itself  is  primary  and  fundamental.  Other  educational 
opportunities  are  only  valuable  as  they  approximate  those 
offered  by  society.  Life  is  intended  to  be  lived  with  our  fel- 
lows and  we  can  only  live  with  them  successfully  by  knowing 
them.  It  is  true  that  much  of  the  knowledge  gained  by  cen- 
turies of  experience  is  now  tabulated  and  preserved  in  book 
form  to  be  learned  in  schools,  but  there  is  also  much  that, 
however  well  it  may  be  understood  in  theory,  cannot  be 
learned  except  by  direct  contact  with  our  fellows.  The  edu- 
cational opportunity  offered  by  society  is  the  true  one,  knowl- 
edge learned  through  it  the  true  knowledge.  Besides  the  op- 
portunity thus  offered  is  with  us  during  all  of  our  normal 
waking  hours.  It  is  the  real  and  true  educational  oppor- 
tunity. 

Educational  Systems  and  National  Ideals.  National  ideals 
and  national  educational  systems  bear  reciprocal  relation- 
ships. The  one  determines  the  other  and  the  other  reacts 
upon  and  modifies  the  one.  In  such  democracies  as  the 
United  States,  Brazil,  France,  or  Switzerland  where  it  is  a 
fundamental  assumption  of  government  that  every  citizen  is 
capable  of  participation  in  government  and  each  one  is 
guaranteed  equal  rights  under  the  law  in  administering  the 
law,  the  national  ideal  of  government  is  reflected  in  the  na- 
tional educational  ideal.  In  such  lands  popular  education 
is  the  rule,  while  class  education  if  existing  at  all  owes  its  be- 
ing to  private  endeavor.  £pdcjluj^ie£jle^ 
It  is  necessary  here  that  each  citizen  receive  the  fullest  educa- 
tional development  possible.  Vigilance  in  government  gained 
through  proper  education  is  the  surest  means  of  perpetuat- 


Tlie  Nature  and  Aim  of  Education  53 

ing  democracies.  Limited  and  unlimited  monarchies  in  the 
hands  of  an  electorate  are  under  like  necessity  to  supply  full 
opportunity  for  education  to  those  exercising  such  rights 
of  government.  In  absolute  monarchies  where  the  national 
ideals  cluster  around  a  few,  the  ruling  class,  and  where  they 
depend  for  their  successful  perpetuation  upon  this  class, 
class  education  in  general  is  limited  and  adapted  chiefly  to 
them,  while  the  masses  are  either  poorly  taught  or  untaught 
in  the  duties  involved  in  civic  relationships.  For  to  teach 
them  freely  in  government  in  any  form  would  destroy  the 
national  ideal,  thus  involving  either  the  destruction  or  modi- 
fication of  the  various  institutions  of  the  state.  Russia  and 
Turkey  would  well  represent  countries  where  national  ideals 
are  clearly  opposed  to  popular  education  with  the  freedom 
of  life  and  action  that  accompanies.  While  Norway,  Sweden, 
Italy,  Germany  and  England  are  representatives  of  consti- 
tutional limited  monarchies,  where  popular  education  is  gen- 
eral and  highly  disseminated.  Apart  from  these  general  re- 
lations of  national  ideals  in  government  and  society  which  are 
reflected  in  the  educational  ideals  of  a  country  the  national 
ideals  are  in  others  even  more  explicitly  represented  in  the 
educational  ideals.  In  America,  for  instance,  civic  and  so- 
cial service  is  the  national  ideal  to  the  successful  attainment 
of  which  all  of  our  educational  forces  are  most  intensely  bent. 
With  us  the  educational  system  in  its  entirety  is  devoted  to 
teaching  the  members  of  the  body  politic  and  of  society  how 
best  to  adjust  themselves  to  their  environment  and  how  best 
to  serve  their  fellows  even  in  the  broadest  and  most  general 
relationships.  The  English  ideal  looks  less  to  social  rela- 
tionship and  the  responsibilities  of  government  and  more 
to  the  creation  of  certain  national  types  and  characteristics 
of  the  people,  so  much  so  as  to  be  easily  noticed  even  to  the 
point  of  making  them  appear  clannish,  and  to  the  establish- 
ing of  constant  adjustment  and  readjustment  to  the  existing 
social  order.  Among  the  Germans  the  social  order  and  char- 
acteristic type  is  forced  even  further  into  the  background 
and  the  chief  stress  of  German  education  is  placed  upon  the 
attainment  of  commercial  advantage.  To  this  end  the  Ger- 
man youth  even  before  maturity  is  taught  the  laws  of  com- 


54  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

merce  and  sent  to  spread  German  wares  in  the  distant  parts 
of  the  earth.  Another  form  of  German  education  fostered 
by  the  national  ideal  and  now  become  traditional  is  its  edu- 
cation for  specialization  and  research.  This  ideal  has  so 
absorbed  the  minds  of  educators  and  so  worked  the  ideal  to 
the  exclusion  of  all  else  that  is  vital  in  education  that  it  has 
considerably  weakened  its  force.  Specialization  in  educa- 
tion has  been  carried  almost  to  excess.  The  German  parent 
chooses  the  career  for  his  son,  which  is  to  a  considerable  extent 
determined  by  his  social  caste,  and  sends  him  along  this  line  of 
special  education  long  before  the  American  youth  is  even  told 
of  the  divergence  in  work  that  is  to  come  and  his  mind  pre- 
pared to  accept  the  specialized  education  that  he  or  his 
parents  will  choose  for  him  to  pursue  some  six  or  eight  or 
even  ten  years  after  the  German  youth  is  into  his  course. 

In  France  the  educational  ideal  is  for  specialization  and 
research,  but  not  to  the  extent  that  it  is  among  the  Germans, 
while  the  ideal  of  commercialism  is  supplanted  by  the  ideal  of 
social  and  political  supremacy.  Turning  from  here  to  the 
ancients,  the  Jews,  a  religious  people,  fostered  an  educa- 
tional ideal  that  was  a  religion,  to  the  working  out  and  per- 
petuation of  which  all  of  their  social,  political  and  educa- 
tional institutions  were  devoted.  The  Chinese  education  was 
a  blind  worship  of  the  past  and  their  social,  political  and 
educational  institutions  allied  them  with  this  past  until  stag- 
nation set  in  putting  China  centuries  behind  the  countries 
of  to-day  in  practical  and  material  advancement. 

REFERENCE  READING 

Bain's  "  Education  as  a  Science."     Chap.  I. 
White's  "Elements  of  Pedagogy."     Introduction. 
Compayre's  "Psychology  Applied  to  Education."     Chap.  I. 
McKeever's  "  Psychologic  Method  in  Teaching."     Chap.  I. 
Roark's  "Psychology  in  Education."     Introduction. 
Keith's  "  Elementary  Education."     Chap.  II. 
Putnam's  "  A  Manual  of  Pedagogics."     Chap.  I. 


CHAPTER  III 
KINDS  OF  EDUCATION 

According  to  the  traditional  view  there  are  fundamentally 
three  kinds  of  education.  This  division  has  arisen  from  the 
time  worn  custom  of  dividing  the  mind  into  the  two  faculties 
of  knowing  and  feeling  (this  latter  including  within  itself 
what  we  know  as  willing),  and  the  habit  of  treating  the  body 
as  essentially  related  to  mind  because  of  which  relation 
mind  is  dependent  upon  body  in  such  a  manner  that  the  edu- 
cation of  one  involves  the  training  and  control  of  the  other. 
Hence  two  of  these  kinds  of  education  deal  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  mind,  the  other  with  that  of  the  body.  This 
method  of  classification  gives  us  intellectual  education,  moral 
education  and  physical  education.  Intellectual  education 
aims  to  develop  and  strengthen  the  mind,  and  to  exercise  the 
intellectual  faculties  in  acquiring,  using  and  adding  to  the 
various  forms  of  extant  positive  knowledge.  Moral  educa- 
tion aims  to  develop  and  strengthen  the  will  and  through 
it  the  heart  (the  natural  capacity  for  feeling  in  its  various 
forms)  and  to  exercise  and  develop  the  will  in  controlling 
the  bodily  and  mental  activities  and  to  conform  them  to  the 
demands  of  the  individual  life  and  of  the  social  life.  Physical 
education  aims  on  the  other  hand  to  prepare  us  to  develop 
and  strengthen  the  body. 

Apart  from  these  traditional  divisions  of  education  the 
march  of  modern  science  and  the  increased  acuteness  of 
modern  thought  and  reflective  processes,  together  with  the 
development  of  the  new  science  of  physiological  psychology 
has  led  to  a  more  detailed  division  of  the  phases  or  kinds 
of  education.  To  these  three  original  kinds  of  education 
the  changes  of  educational  forms  and  systems  have  added 
still  others.  To  physical  education  there  has  been  added 
physiological  education  more  as  a  coordinate  than  as  a  sub- 

.  55 


56  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

ordinate  field  to  physical  education.  In  like  manner  but  as 
involving  a  separate  field  from  moral  education,  esthetical 
and  religious  education  have  appeared.  While  the  general 
tendency  to  popularize  education  now  prevalent  in  all  of  the 
advanced  and  liberal  countries  from  a  governmental  view- 
point and  to  make  it  democratic  (useful  to  all  classes)  has 
led  to  the  introduction  of  those  forms  of  education  known  as 
industrial  education,  vocational  and  commercial  education. 
Somewhat  overlapping  these  and  yet  sufficiently  distinct 
from  them  to  permit  of  consideration  here  there  might  be 
added  to  the  list  already  given  to  make  the  above  analysis 
more  complete,  practical  and  theoretical  education. 

We  find,  then,  upon  detailed  analysis  that  we  have  ten  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  education,  to  each  of  which  we  will  devote  a 
few  brief  paragraphs  by  way  of  explanation  and  discussion. 

1.  Physiological  Education.  In  the  reaction  against  the 
asceticism  of  medieval  times,  the  body  instead  of  being  as 
heretofore  despised  as  the  seat  of  evil  and  the  source  of  sin 
and  corruption  in  man  and  an  unfit  temple  for  the  indwelling 
of  the  immortal  spirit  of  man  and  accordingly  mutilated,  mal- 
treated, scourged  and  its  normal  functions  with  its  appetites 
suppressed  that  the  soul  might  be  freed  as  soon  as  possible 
from  its  earthly  home  of  clay,  became  a  source  of  respectful 
consideration  and  consequent  study  until  in  the  eyes  of  all 
it  grew  into  an  object  of  pride  and  lofty  regard.  This  feel- 
ing grew  apace  until  it  was  given  new  life  by  the  educational 
theories  of  the  eighteenth,  nineteenth  and  twentieth  centuries, 
wherein  the  true  relation  of  body  and  mind  was  first  seen 
and  appreciated,  though  even  then  but  dimly.  Since  Her- 
bert Spencer  turned  his  trenchant  pen  upon  the  subject  of 
education  physiological  education  has  been  a  prominent  part 
of  all  educational  systems  and  the  subject  has  been  a  prom- 
inent part  of  the  curricula  of  all  educational  institutions. 
The  "  don'ts  "  of  the  nursery  and  kindergarten  followed  later 
by  the  effective  prohibition  of  the  tendency  to  abuse  and  over- 
tax the  stomach  resulting  from  the  insatiable  desires  of  dis- 
torted appetites  are  all  forms  of  physiological  education. 
Most  of  these  have  been  embodied  in  book  forms  and  are  now 
taught  in  the  school  as  regular  part  of  the  curriculum.     In 


Kinds  of  Education  57 

the  lower  grade  schools  this  takes  the  forms  of  talks  on 
"  the  care  of  the  Body,"  "  How  to  obtain  and  maintain  a 
healthy  Body,"  "  the  Vital  organs  and  their  functions," 
"  The  value  of  food  and  exercise,"  etc.,  accompanied  later  on 
in  the  higher  grades  by  the  use  of  distinctive  texts  on  Hy- 
giene and  Physiology.  In  the  higher  grades  of  the  public 
schools  this  is  followed  by  a  more  minute  and  analytical  study 
of  the  organs  of  the  body,  the  nature  of  their  functions,  their 
relations  to  health  and  growth  and  how  they  may  be  properly 
cared  for.  In  the  secondary  and  higher  institutions  of  learn- 
ing physiological  education  is  gained  through  the  study  of 
anatomy  and  its  many  related  subjects  —  the  so-called  phy- 
siological sciences.  Though  in  these  latter  there  is  much  less 
of  hygiene  than  is  learned  in  the  more  elementary  forms  of 
the  physiological  sciences.  Physiological  education  includes 
the  teaching  of  how  to  prepare  food  and  balanced  rations,  how 
to  chew  and  masticate  food,  how  and  in  what  quantities  to 
take  food  and  exercise,  when  to  rest,  etc.  By  this  the  value 
of  it  as  a  form  of  education  is  at  once  seen  and  appreciated. 

Apart  from  this  form  of  physiological  education,  in  the 
higher  courses  in  advanced  institutions  of  learning  is  to  be 
found  as  a  practically  newcomer  in  the  field  of  the  natural 
sciences,  the  science  of  physiological  psychology  —  the  rela- 
tion of  the  bodily  processes  to  the  functioning  of  the  brain. 
This  form  of  physiological  education  is  very  valuable  to  the 
study  of  the  processes  of  mental  education  and  has  given 
much  needed  explanations  of  conditions  and  problems  that 
were  a  source  of  inconvenience  and  obstruction  to  educa- 
tional processes  in  general,  but  for  which  no  sufficient  remedy 
had  thus  far  been  found.  When  physiological  psychology 
made  its  advent  upon  the  scene  it  gave  new  facts  and  added 
new  zest  to  physiological  education  in  general  and  showed 
in  a  way  never  before  known  what  proper  physiological  edu- 
cation means  to  the  bodily  and  mental  welfare  of  a  people. 
The  value  of  certain  food  values  as  shown  by  dietetics  have 
all  given  increased  impetus  and  strength  to  physiological 
education. 

The  importance  of  physiological  education  forms  a  marked 
contrast  to  the  astonishing  neglect  of  it  by  many  schools 


58  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

and  most  parents.  In  the  case  of  the  human  body  a  few 
ounces  of  prevention  is  indeed  better  than  many  pounds  of 
cure.  Intemperance  in  physiological  habits  and  ignorance  of 
the  simplest  laws  of  health  combined  with  indifference  toward 
and  neglect  of  the  few  laws  of  health  that  we  may  happen 
to  have  learned  is  the  sorrowful  explanation  of  most  human 
ills.  The  fearful  percentage  of  infant  mortality  and  the 
alarming  presence  of  such  bodily  ailments  as  constipation, 
and  dyspepsia  with  their  hosts  of  related  ailments,  colds,  con- 
sumption, catarrh,  fevers  and  the  other  myriads  of  human 
maladies  are  chiefly  traceable  either  to  a  lack  of  or  general 
disinterest  in,  the  dissemination  of  physiological  education. 
Here  ignorance  is  a  withering  curse  that  spreads  misery 
and  woe  everywhere,  which  like  a  blighting  frost  in  the  night 
falls  upon  the  innocent  and  unoffending  and  nips  off  the 
young  buds  long  before  they  have  approached  the  season 
of  flower  and  fruit.  The  burden  that  present  day  economic 
problems  force  upon  the  successful  man  necessitates  care  of 
the  body  as  never  before.  With  this  burden  upon  him  he  can 
little  afford  the  physiological  handicap  of  overfeeding,  un- 
derfeeding or  irregular  feeding  and  in  fact  he  can  afford 
no  kind  of  irregularity  in  habits.  In  the  time  of  epidemics, 
pestilences  and  scourges  proper  habits  of  bathing  and  of  rest- 
ing are  of  as  much  importance  as  physicians'  medicines  and 
druggists'  disinfectants.  To  be  fully  effective  then,  physio- 
logical education  would  involve  a  training  in  the  feeding, 
cleansing  and  clothing  of  the  body  together  with  a  knowledge 
of  the  proper  care  of  the  internal  organs  assisting  in  the  vital 
processes  and  their  relations  to  and  dependence  one  upon 
the  other.  In  formal  educational  processes  this  is  attained 
by  instructions  in  physiology,  hygiene,  anatomy  and  its 
allied  natural  sciences,  and  still  more  recently  by  the  intro- 
duction of  courses  in  domestic  economy,  domestic  science  and 
household  arts,  but  more  especially  through  the  domestic  sci- 
ence courses. 

Physical  Education.  Physical  education  and  physio- 
logical education  have  much  in  common.  The  fact  that  gen- 
erally what  little  writers  have  to  say  about  physiological 
education  they  include  under  physical  education  will  serve 


Kinds  of  Education  59 

to  show  that  the  conception  of  them  as  identical  or  nearly  so 
is  quite  common.  Hence  the  lines  drawn  here  may  not  seem 
justifiable,  nor  even  acceptable,  to  all.  However,  granting 
all  or  even  part  of  what  is  said  under  the  one  may  be  in- 
cluded under  the  other,  there  are  still  good  reasons  based 
on  fact  for  separating  them,  and  the  conception  of  them  as 
distinct  is  both  clear  and  logical.  For  at  bottom  all  of  the 
forms  of  education  are  closely  inter-related  and  consequently 
much  of  what  is  said  under  one  head  might  oftentimes  with 
reasonable  clearness  be  included  under  the  other.  However 
there  is  a  justifiable  distinction  as  the  facts  present  will 
show. 

The  current  dictum  that  each  generation  grows  weaker 
and  wiser  seems  to  bear  the  test  of  scientific  analysis.  Scien- 
tific study  has  disclosed  the  fact  that  the  life  span  is  steadily 
growing  less  than  the  accepted  thirty-three  years  and  also 
that  in  stature  and  endurance  man  is  smaller  and  weaker 
than  even  his  near  ancestors.  While  this  is  partly  explained 
by  the  demands  that  the  strenuous  life  of  to-day  is  making 
upon  our  bodies,  it  is  also  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  physical 
education  is  not  keeping  pace  with  intellectual  education.  In 
ancient  times  physical  education  was  a  prominent  part,  in- 
deed the  most  prominent  part  with  some  countries,  of  all 
education.  Oftentimes  as  among  the  Greeks  (especially 
among  the  men  of  Sparta  and  Lacedemonia)  and  the  Romans 
it  became  the  all  absorbing  part.  Later  under  the  stress  of 
other  social  and  civic  problems  it  was  gradually  neglected 
until  under  the  influence  of  the  stoic  and  later  the  ascetic 
of  medieval  times  it  was  entirely  lost  sight  of  or  neglected  in 
matters  of  education,  and  only  comparatively  recently  did 
it  appear  again  and  gradually  assume  a  place  of  steadily 
increasing  prominence  in  the  modern  schemes  of  education. 

The  need  of  the  body  for  exercise  as  well  as  rest,  food, 
cleansing  and  clothing  has  always  been  more  or  less  tacitly 
implied  when  not  indeed  overtly  stated.  The  general  assump- 
tion however,  has  been  that  this  demand  was  not  as  impera- 
tive as  others  and  could  be  supplied  without  any  special  pro- 
vision for  it  in  school  systems  and  educational  institutions. 
For  this  reason  while  nearly  every  school  has  been  indis- 


60  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

criminately  provided  with  playgrounds,  comparatively  few 
schools  have  provided  themselves  with  the  means  of  systematic 
physical  instruction.  The  fact  that  we  are  born  with 
physical  defects  as  well  as  mental,  and  that  we  cannot  "  just 
grow  up  "  physically  any  more  so  than  mentally  is  being 
finally  though  tardily  appreciated  by  those  who  are  clothed 
with  the  authority  and  charged  with  the  responsibility  of 
looking  after  and  providing  for  matters  educational.  Even 
after  much  discussion  and  agitation  the  best  that  has  been 
attained  along  these  lines  in  formal  education  is  generally 
physical  training,  carried  on  by  means  of  gymnastics  and 
calisthenics  in  rather  restricted  quarters,  and  during  very 
limited  periods  of  time.  In  higher  institutions  of  learning 
it  is  somewhat  better.  For  example,  in  this  country  prac- 
tically every  college  and  university  of  any  consequence  has 
its  gymnasium,  which  is  in  charge  of  a  physical  director, 
wherein  the  students  are  given  physical  entrance  examina- 
tions and  classified  according  to  their  various  physical  abili- 
ties and  shortcomings  and  these  either  developed  or  over- 
come and  removed.  To  what  extent  and  on  what  scale 
physical  education  is  being  conducted  in  these  institutions 
one  can  only  know  by  either  visiting  one  of  them  or  by  read- 
ing carefully  prepared  illustrated  descriptions  of  the  courses 
outlined  and  the  work  done.  There  are  classes  in  physical 
education  organized  with  practical  exercises  for  the  devel- 
opment of  the  eye,  ear,  nose,  throat,  lungs,  stomach,  the 
back,  kidneys,  neck,  chin,  face,  limbs  (arms,  hands,  fingers, 
legs,  feet,  toes).  Also  courses  for  the  development  of  the 
body  as  a  whole  such  as  exercises  to  produce  symmetry  in 
form,  beauty  of  figure  and  grace  in  movement,  are  offered 
to  all  who  need  them  as  the  regular  accompaniment  of  the 
other  regular  courses,  literary,  technical,  professional  and 
vocational.  In  the  public  school,  of  course,  not  so  much 
has  been  done  or  can  be  done  both  on  account  of  the  general 
purpose  of  the  public  school  and  the  nature  of  the  duty 
which  it  aims  to  perform  for  the  citizenship  as  a  whole. 

However,  in  the  public  schools  of  those  cities  where  the 
problem  of  physical  education  has  been  given  an  attempted 
solution  the  issue  is  met  sometimes  in  pretty  much  the  same 


Kinds  of  Education  61 

manner  as  is  done  in  the  colleges  and  universities.  But  more 
often  it  only  approaches  it  as  nearly  as  the  means  at  hand 
will  permit.  Where  means  for  physical  education  are  want- 
ing the  problem  is  met  as  best  it  can  be.  In  those  places 
where  the  presence  of  funds  permit  there  are  physical  di- 
rectors and  assistants  provided  by  the  authorities,  who  visit 
the  schools,  and  give  exercises  in  calisthenics  calculated  to  re- 
move the  strain  of  the  mental  educational  processes  and  at 
the  same  time  to  improve  the  body.  Because  of  the  rela- 
tion which  this  kind  of  education  is  seen  to  bear  to  the 
other  forms  of  education,  and  in  the  important  place  which 
it  has  come  to  occupy  in  our  educational  processes,  many 
school  boards  are  requiring  the  teachers  to  prepare  them- 
selves to  teach  some  form  of  physical  education  in  their 
schools,  indoors  when  necessary  and  out  of  doors  when  the 
weather  will  permit,  offering  this  as  the  nearest  and  best 
substitute  for  a  physical  education  which  their  limited  means 
will  allow  them  to  furnish.  In  those  cases  in  which  the 
physical  education  is  conducted  on  a  technical  scale,  the 
physical  directors  are  assisted  in  their  work  by  examining 
physicians  whose  duties  it  is  to  visit  the  various  schools 
and  examine  the  students  for  evident  physical  defects  and 
recommend  for  them  the  appropriate  forms  of  physical 
training.  In  many  cases  here,  too,  the  work  has  been  carried 
sufficiently  far  to  be  graded  and  to  extend  with  the  grades 
throughout  the  school  course. 

But  physical  education  par  excellence  is  carried  on  in 
American  Schools  by  that  system  of  training  provided  for 
now  by  all  secondary  schools  and  schools  of  higher  learning 
under  the  name  of  athletics.  This  form  of  physical  educa- 
tion has  become  a  fine  art  in  many  American  institutions, 
so  much  so  that  it  has  called  the  attention  of  the  world  to 
that  particular  phase  of  our  work  and  in  many  instances 
national  governments  abroad  are  sending  representatives 
to  us  to  study  and  master  our  athletic  systems  for  the  pur- 
pose of  having  them  introduced  and  taught  in  their  respec- 
tive countries.  In  many  cases  athletics  like  many  other 
popular  things  have  been  carried  to  excess  soon  thereafter 
to  fall  into  disfavor  and  in  a  few  cases  even  into  disuse.     Here 


68  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

oftentimes  the  claim  is  justly  made  that  the  process  is  car- 
ried to  too  great  a  degree  of  specialization  and  this  also  at 
too  great  a  sacrifice  of  time  and  money.  Another  strong 
objection  to  the  American  method  of  athletic  training  as  a 
fitting  substitute  for  physical  education  is  that  the  former 
system  is  too  highly  selective  and,  as  such,  benefits  only 
those  few  who  possess  rare  ability  and  power  of  endurance 
in  a  given  line,  these  being  used  for  purposes  of  inter-schol- 
astic competitive  tests  and  exhibitions,  to  the  neglect  and 
even  complete  exclusion  of  the  remaining  major  part  of  the 
student  body.  Apart  from  these  objections  however,  which 
have  some  foundation  in  truth,  it  must  be  said  that  much  of 
the  sturdy  American  manhood  and  power  for  strenuous  ac- 
tivity which  has  become  a  national  characteristic  and  an  in- 
ternational social  asset  and  which  is  a  joy  to  every  true 
hearted  American  may  be  traced  directly  to  our  competitive 
system  of  school,  college  and  university  athletics, —  football 
in  the  fall,  basket  ball,  indoor  baseball  and  hocky  in  the 
winter,  with  baseball,  handball,  rowing,  golf  and  tennis  in 
the  spring,  which  with  a  host  of  minor  games  added  to  the 
group  and  strung  out  through  the  school  and  calendar  year 
make  up  the  whole.  On  the  other  hand  the  gymnasium 
and  every  form  of  athletic  sport  as  fostered  and  supported  by 
the  school  authorities  are  absent  from  the  systems  of  Europe, 
though  calisthenics  and  other  forms  of  physical  education 
in  the  public  schools  of  Europe  are  much  the  same  as  in 
America.  In  fact  in  some  cases,  especially  in  the  public 
schools,  much  of  the  European  method  has  been  adopted  in 
the  larger  American  city  schools.  The  gymnastics  and 
calisthenics  systems  are  developed  to  their  best  in  some  of  the 
countries  of  Europe  for  mass  training  in  the  open  air.  At 
the  head  of  such  countries  perhaps  stands  Switzerland  where 
in  some  of  the  cantons  the  whole  able  bodied  male  population 
having  been  trained  in  the  schools  during  their  school  days 
join  on  festal  occasions  in  physical  drills  in  groups  of  a 
thousand  or  more.  Closely  following  the  lead  of  Switzerland 
in  this  kind  of  physical  education  come  Norway  and  Sweden. 
In  America  the  college  hero  is  "  the  mighty  athletic  warrior," 
the  champion  of  his  school  in  many  "  gory  "  contests.     In 


Kinds  of  Education  65 

Germany  he  is  a  great  beer  drinker  and  saber  fighter  (duel- 
list). In  France  he  is  a  great  wine  "bibber"  and  saber 
fighter,  while  in  England  he  wins  his  right  to  the  title  by  his 
prowess  in  cricket,  football  (association)  and  tennis. 

The  demand  for  a  physical  education  is  quite  generally 
recognized  and  in  most  cases  proper  provision  made  for  it  by 
those  charged  with  the  responsibility  in  such  matters.  In 
only  a  few  cases,  however,  is  the  real  need  of  physical  educa- 
tion for  the  growing  child  fully  understood  by  the  masses  of 
the  people.  The  physical  strain  upon  the  ordinary  child 
in  performing  the  duties  of  the  daily  school  routine  is  severe. 
Much  more  severe  than  many  teachers  and  parents  realize. 
Occasionally  this  fact  is  brought  forcibly  to  our  notice  by 
an  extreme  case  of  suffering,  sickness  and  even  rarely  by  a 
death.  But  we  pass  even  these  flagrant  cases  by  without 
more  than  a  passing  thought,  little  imagining  that  the  situa- 
tion may  be  brought  home  to  us  at  any  time  by  a  similar 
case.  The  strenuous  activity  necessary  for  success  in  mod- 
ern life  puts  an  ever  increasing  strain  upon  men  of  the 
world.  The  growing  intensity  of  competition  taxes  the 
energies  of  both  young  and  old  to  an  ever  increasing  de- 
gree. Indeed  so  great  has  this  strain  become  that  its  weak- 
ening and  destructive  effects  are  now  traceable  into  the  life 
and  powers  of  the  younger  generation.  The  children  of  to- 
day are  born  weaker,  more  nervous  and  emaciated  than  those 
of  former  generations.  On  the  other  hand  this  weaker  con- 
stitution received  through  heredity  is  called  upon  to  bear 
even  greater  strain  than  that  of  the  older  generation.  The 
curriculum  of  the  school  is  steadily  increasing  both  in  the 
number  of  subjects  and  in  the  degree  of  complexity  of  the 
treatment  in  the  texts  used.  Under  this  strain  the  youth- 
ful body  unprepared  at  the  start  and  with  poor  and  meager 
opportunities  for  physical  education  must  of  necessity  weaken 
and  in  time  break  down  under  the  strain.  One  need  but  visit 
the  schools  of  the  congested  districts  of  our  large  cities  to 
see  the  effect  of  this  neglect  of  physical  training  upon  the 
youth.  Pale  and  worn  faces  everywhere  meet  the  gaze  and 
investigation  shows  the  fearful  prevalence  of  headaches,  con- 
stipation and  dyspepsia.     In  boarding  schools  this  condition 


64  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

is  generally  intensified.  In  both  of  these  there  are  occasional 
breakdowns,  nervous  prostration  and  sometimes  fevers. 
Mind  and  body  are  so  related  that  this  fearful  strain  on  mind 
soon  shows  on  the  body  and  the  bodily  functions,  resulting 
ultimately  in  producing  a  weaker  and  in  every  way  physically 
an  inferior  generation.  The  law  of  Lamarck  that  use  of 
organs  strengthens,  disuse  impairs,  and  abuse  destroys,  cer- 
tainly holds  good  here.  The  only  remedy  for  this  condition 
of  strain  and  over  exertion  is  to  balance  it  by  proper  physical 
development  induced  through  a  proper  physical  education. 

Most  of  what  has  been  said  about  the  provisions  for  phys- 
ical education,  especially  athletics  and  gymnastics  applies 
chiefly  to  physical  education  for  boys.  Strange  to  say  that 
those  who  are  most  in  need  of  physical  education  by  their 
very  nature  and  social  responsibility  —  girls  —  are  given 
the  least  consideration  and  opportunity  to  obtain  this  kind 
of  education.  One  of  the  most  serious  traditions  inherited 
from  the  past  and  most  obstructive  to  progress  in  this  mat- 
ter is  the  idea  that  girls  should  be  brought  up  delicate  and 
weak.  Though  much  has  been  accomplished  in  overcoming 
this  traditional  idea  and  much  is  still  being  done  to  break 
the  fetters  of  this  dangerous  tradition,  the  girls  and  women 
of  the  race  still  suffer  woefully  from  the  restraint  upon  them 
in  indulging  in  the  various  forms  of  physical  and  bodily  ex- 
ercise, a  restraint  maintained  almost  solely  through  an  un- 
justifiable and  even  maudlin  sentiment.  It  is  surprising  to 
see  how  strong  and  widespread  is  this  sentiment.  Women 
and  men  otherwise  advanced  and  liberal  in  thought  are 
narrow  and  biased  in  this  one  particular.  Mothers  and 
teachers  who  will  witness  with  deep  pleasure  the  health  and 
vigor  of  a  growing  boy,  obtained  through  unrestrained  in- 
dulgence in  play,  will  throw  up  their  hands  in  horror  at  the 
very  thought  of  a  daughter  indulging  in  any  kind  of  active 
physical  exercise  in  any  way  so  violent  or  intense.  Still, 
let  it  be  said  with  pleasant  and  cheerful  expectation  of  its 
constant  extension  that  a  counter  sentiment  has  been  awak- 
ened and  has  already  done  much  for  the  benefit  of  our  girls. 
Many  schools  for  girls  nowadays  are  equipped  with  gym- 
nasiums and  physical  directors  and  in  many  co-educational 


Kinds  of  Education  65 

institutions  the  girls  share  the  gymnasiums  equally  with  the 
boys,  generally  having  access  to  its  equipment  during  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  day  or  on  certain  days  during  the  week, 
at  which  time  under  the  watchful  care  of  a  properly  trained 
attendant  their  physical  education  is  looked  after.  The 
physical  education  of  women  is  however  chiefly  cultural,  con- 
sisting of  gymnastics,  calisthenics  and  exercise  in  dancing, 
walking  and  sometimes  in  advanced  courses  in  rowing  and 
fencing.  More  recently  many  out  door  games  have  been 
opened  to  them  such  as  basket-ball,  tennis,  golf,  etc.  in  which 
in  some  cases  they  have  gained  prowess  equal  to  men  and 
compete  with  them  ably  in  open  contests.  A  very  recent 
custom  to  open  to  them  in  many  sections  interscholastic 
competitive  contests  has  been  inaugurated,  thus  adding  a 
purpose,  zest  and  spirit  to  their  efforts  in  gaining  physical 
power  through  physical  education.  Where  gymnasiums 
could  not  be  had  open  air  gymnastics  and  calisthenics  have 
been  provided  for  the  girls  until  to-day  the  sentiment  is  pretty 
strong  for  a  physically  well  developed  womanhood  to  keep 
pace  with  our  sturdy  manhood. 

Industrial  Education.  In  the  trend  toward  popular  gov- 
ernment, popular  education  and  democratic  institutions,  new 
forms  of  education  have  been  introduced  to  meet  the  new 
responsibilities  of  new  civic  and  social  relations  and  to  create 
new  opportunity  for  the  masses.  To  meet  these  new  de- 
mands manual  training  schools,  vocational  schools,  industrial 
schools  and  agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges  have  been 
established.  In  America  the  industrial  school  is  a  popular 
form  of  the  technical  school  which  has  become  general  in 
the  public  school  systems  of  Europe  as  trade  schools.  In 
many  European  countries  the  system  of  apprentices  is  still 
in  vogue  where  the  youth  are  bound  out  as  artisans  under 
stipulated  conditions  that  they  may  learn  the  given  trade 
or  profession.  With  us  the  technical  school  was  the  first 
to  appear.  Later  in  reaction  against  the  theoretical  and 
abstract  education  of  our  public  schools  and  institutions  of 
higher  learning  there  was  created  after  considerable  agita- 
tion a  demand  for  a  more  practical  education.  The  Sloyd 
system  of  manual  training  was  first  introduced  from  Scan- 


66  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

dinavia  and  later  on  this  movement  was  extended  to  include 
various  trades.  A  particularly  strong  demand  for  this  kind 
of  education  was  created  by  the  emancipation  of  the  Negro 
slaves  of  the  South.  To  meet  this  demand  Hampton  Insti- 
tute was  started  as  an  experiment  by  Major  Armstrong. 
Out  of  it  grew  Tuskegee.  Both  of  these  proved  their  prac- 
tical value  and  usefulness  until  to-day  there  are  many  such 
schools  throughout  the  country,  but  chiefly  in  the  South 
daily  proving  their  worth  by  the  kind  of  training  they  give 
and  the  product  they  put  out.  The  aim  of  this  work  was 
originally  for  the  Negro.  But  in  the  agitation  and  spread 
of  it  among  them  the  general  value  of  such  education  to  the 
entire  American  citizenship  was  soon  seen  and  the  agitation 
for  such  schools  increased  in  scope  until  it  included  a  scheme 
for  schools  of  this  kind  for  whites  as  well  as  for  blacks  until 
now  opportunities  for  industrial  and  vocational  education 
is  offered  almost  everywhere  in  the  larger  cities  of  the  coun- 
try. In  many  cities  such  as  Philadelphia,  Boston,  Pitts- 
burg, St.  Louis,  these  manual  training  schools  are  the  pride 
of  the  school  system  and  the  attendance  at  North  East 
Manual  Training  High  School,  Philadelphia,  is  greater  than 
quarters  will  allow  for  accommodation.  Maryland  has  taken 
the  lead  among  the  states  in  this  movement  and  has  a  state 
educational  fund  available  for  the  conducting  of  such  work 
in  all  of  the  public  schools  of  the  states.  The  providing 
of  means  of  the  teaching  of  this  kind  of  work  is  made  com- 
pulsory on  the  part  of  school  authorities,  the  failure  to 
provide  such  opportunity  being  penalized  by  the  loss  of  the 
pro  rata  portion  of  the  state  fund  for  such  work.  On  the 
other  hand  attempts  to  introduce  such  work  in  the  schools 
have  in  many  places  met  with  serious  and  successful  opposi- 
tion. Buildings  put  up  and  equipped  and  teachers  employed 
have  often  been  idle  and  attendance  poor  until  in  some  cases 
the  movenment  had  to  be  abandoned  through  lack  of  popular 
support.  In  Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania,  such  conditions  ex- 
isted. The  custom  has  been  introduced  in  most  sections 
of  exhibiting  at  the  close  of  each  school  year  the  work  done 
by  the  pupils  in  the  public  schools  under  the  head  of  manual 
training.     These  exhibitions  have  alwa}7s  proved  interesting 


Kinds  of  Education  67 

and  instructive.  Besides  serving  to  win  over  the  opponents 
of  this  kind  of  education  to  its  cause,  the  exhibition  itself  is 
generally  a  source  of  agreeable  surprise  at  the  degree  of 
efficiency  and  skill  which  the  students  show  that  they  have 
gained  during  the  brief  hours  of  training  and  the  meager 
opportunity  and  equipment  for  the  work.  It  seems  to  fall 
short  of  the  work  of  the  commercial  world  only  in  point  of 
speed  in  production.  Some  of  it  is  so  fine  in  its  evidence 
of  workmanship,  mastery  of  detail  and  evidence  of  skill  in 
tool  manipulation  that  we  can  hardly  believe  that  the  objects 
made  were  the  work  of  boys  in  their  early  "  teens."  In 
the  manual  training  schools  the  work  is  never  pursued  to  the 
points  of  a  finished  course,  but  merely  offers  a  kind  of  intro- 
duction to  the  work  and  this  only  in  its  lighter  and  simpler 
forms.  In  the  industrial  and  vocational  schools  the  aim  is  to 
put  out  a  finished  mechanic  who  in  speed  and  skill  is  able  to 
compete  successfully  with  the  practical  artisans  in  the  vari- 
ous fields  of  labor.  Hence  in  these  schools  more  time  is 
spent  in  the  work  with  better  equipment  and  the  working 
conditions  are  more  conducive  to  the  results  desired.  Many 
industrial  and  vocational  schools  endeavor  in  their  trades 
offered  to  cover  much  of  the  field  of  the  general  trades  and 
handicrafts. 

As  a  result  of  this  same  demand  for  industrial  and  vo- 
cational education,  engineering  and  mining  schools,  where 
electrical,  mechanical  and  civil  engineering  and  courses  in 
mining  and  metallurgy  are  taught,  have  been  established  in 
various  places  (instance  the  Roller  School  of  Mines  in  Mis- 
souri, and  the  State  Schools  of  Mines  in  Oklahoma  and  Colo- 
rado). In  supplying  this  same  demand  agricultural  schools, 
the  present  agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges,  have  been 
started  in  nearly  every  state  in  the  union.  How  large  a 
gap  this  form  of  education  fills  in  our  educational  systems 
and  how  strong  the  tendency  toward  it  is,  is  shown  by  the 
wonderful  popularity,  magnificent  financial  support"  and 
large  attendance  which  these  institutions  enjoy.  The  agri- 
cultural and  mechanical  colleges  have  become  even  more  popu- 
lar since  to  break  up  the  constantly  increasing  congestion 
in  cities  with  its  disease,  poverty  and  crime,  "  back  to  the 


68  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

farm  "  movements  have  been  inaugurated  both  by  private 
individuals  and  by  the  local,  county,  state  and  national  gov- 
ernments. To  work  up  interest  and  enthusiasm  along  this 
line  where  opportunities  to  go  to  school  cannot  be  accepted, 
government  experts  go  conducting  "  moving  schools."  Rail- 
roads have  recently  joined  this  form  of  educational  work 
and  "  agricultural  trains  "  manned  with  expert  instructors 
by  the  state  and  supplied  with  large  exhibits  make  annual 
tours  from  city  to  city,  also  to  town  and  hamlet  and  give 
expert  instruction  as  a  supplement  to  the  agricultural  edu- 
cation of  the  public  school  and  the  more  especially  equipped 
higher  institutions  for  such  training.  All  of  these  schools 
and  movements  represent  one  more  step  in  the  present  day 
trend  from  the  abstract,  impractical  and  valueless  in  education 
to  the  concrete,  practical  and  valuable.  They  fulfill  a  demand 
only  recently  realized  and  appreciated  but  which  has  proved 
to  be  amazing  in  scope  and  relation.  It  is  a  welcome  sight 
under  the  near  democratic  education  to  walk  into  a  school, 
where  alongside  of  the  much  decried  but  still  valuable  Latin 
and  Greek  and  abstract  sciences  and  the  less  objectionable 
but  still  highly  cultural  French  and  German,  one  may  gaze 
upon  the  happily  engaged  classes  in  domestic  science,  house- 
hold arts  and  home  economics ;  or  in  the  more  remote  parts  of 
perhaps  the  same  building  amid  the  whirr  and  buzz  of  ma- 
chinery, that  give  the  school  the  air  of  the  busy  industrial 
world,  to  see  the  classes  in  woodwork,  machine  work  and 
smithwork  all  alive  and  with  a  step  and  bodily  movements 
keyed  to  the  rush  of  machinery,  is  equally  pleasing.  Each 
speaks  volumes.  The  future  of  any  nation  with  such  a  com- 
ing citizenship  is  easily  safe.  The  educational  effect  of  this 
kind  of  education  for  the  weal  of  the  masses  can  hardly  be 
estimated.  From  these  schools  the  boys  and  girls  go  into 
the  home  and  the  world  of  business  and  industry,  carrying 
with  them  an  enthusiasm  and  a  knowledge  of  new  values  and 
relations  that  broaden  conception  of  human  life  as  a  whole 
and  add  much  to  human  happiness. 

Moral  Education.  Moral  education  may  be  defined  as 
that  kind  of  education  which  teaches  us  the  habits  of  action 
and  thought  of  our  fellows  and  our  relations  to   them  in 


Kinds  of  Education  69 

regulating  our  own  habits  of  action  and  thought.  As  such 
it  has  always  been  given  a  prominent  place  even  in  the  earli- 
est types  of  formal  education.  At  first  it  consisted  merely 
of  a  training  in  the  national  habits  and  customs  and  the 
general  manners  of  action  of  the  people,  as  well  as  train- 
ing in  the  written  and  expressed  laws  of  the  land.  Though 
later  separated  much  of  early  moral  education  was  a  training 
in  religion  and  religious  rites  and  customs.  As  mankind  ad- 
vanced in  the  scale  of  culture  and  refinement  the  moral  code 
became  more  extensive  and  began  to  take  on  its  more  modern 
form  until  finally  moral  education  as  conceived  of  to-day  and 
as  taught  in  our  schools  partook  more  of  what  we  might  for 
clearness  define  as  social  usage.  To-day  moral  education 
is  not  given  a  very  prominent  place  in  our  school  curriculum. 
Indeed  it  seems  chiefly  to  serve  the  purpose  of  "chinking 
in  gaps  "  in  our  regular  weekly  or  monthly  program.  It  is 
limited  chiefly  to  instruction  in  social  usage,  such  as  the 
value  of  the  simple  virtues  and  courtesies  and  talks  on 
patriotism  in  the  attempt  to  arouse  national  pride  and  a 
respect  for  our  civil  institutions.  Often  and  with  credit  it 
takes  up  such  subjects  as  respect  for  the  aged,  the  sick  and 
afflicted,  the  poor  and  the  weak  and  helpless.  Sometimes 
again  it  branches  off  quite  distinctly  into  manners  proper. 
In  a  broader  sense  moral  education  deals  with  tendencies, 
instincts  and  habits  and  the  formation  of  what  we  call  good 
character  attained  through  an  effective  training  of  the  will. 
In  this  sense  in  a  general  way  by  monthly,  bi-weekly  or 
weekly  talks  and  by  such  opportune  additions  as  the  teacher 
may  perhaps  find  time  and  occasion  to  give  instruction,  a 
moral  education  is  provided  for  by  the  schools.  In  this 
harum-scarum  way  but  little  effective  education  along  moral 
lines  is  done.  When,  however,  we  stop  to  think  of  the  moral 
imperfections  in  ourselves  and  our  fellows  and  how  much 
human  suffering  is  caused  thereby,  we  marvel  at  the  little 
provision  that  is  made  for  this  kind  of  education  in  the 
schools.  When,  again,  we  think  of  the  moral  pitfalls,  that 
we  must  pass  from  day  to  day  and  what  effective  willing  it 
requires  even  in  the  minds  of  highest  balance  for  it  to  weather 
safely  the  storms  that  assail  on  every  side  and  how  compara- 


70  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

tively  few  men  and  women  there  are  who  are  well  educated 
morally,  the  absence  of  well  regulated  moral  training  be- 
comes even  a  greater  mystery.  That  such  training  is  needed 
one  need  only  gaze  in  the  daily  newspaper  and  the  current 
magazines  at  the  stories  of  graft  and  political  and  business 
corruption  throughout  the  country  to  see  plenty  of  evidence. 
It  goes  without  saying  that  a  neglect  of  this  side  of  our  edu- 
cation will  cast  a  shadow  on  our  educational  institutions 
and  their  product  that  no  amount  of  mental  brilliancy  and 
an  otherwise  successful  achievement  will  be  able  to  hide  or 
remove.  In  national  ideals,  in  political  life  and  in  govern- 
mental methods  we  will  be  as  a  ship  at  sea  without  a  rudder 
exposed  to  the  merciless  force  of  the  raging  billows,  help- 
less before  our  own  depravity  and  weakness. 

There  is  a  still  broader  sense  in  which  moral  education  is 
used, —  that  of  procreation  and  the  rearing  of  children  and 
teaching  them  conformity  to  the  laws  of  nature  and  man  as 
established  in  both  the  natural  and  artificial  system  of  re- 
wards and  punishments.  The  duties  of  parenthood  are  the 
most  serious  that  human  beings  are  called  on  to  perform,  in 
that  all  neglect,  impropriety  or  ignorance  in  performing 
them  is  more  fatal  to  mankind  than  in  the  case  of  any  others. 
And  yet  this  form  of  education  is  almost  entirely  neglected 
despite  the  fact  that  it  is  a  very  complex  problem  and  experi- 
ment in  it  most  costly.  By  reason  of  this  neglect  human 
children  are  very  poorly  born.  But  if  this  were  all  and  the 
problem  ended  here  things  would  not  look  so  bad.  For  ow- 
ing to  the  general  pliantness  and  plasticity  of  the  infant  and 
child  together  with  the  high  degree  of  impressibility  01  the 
growing  mind  of  youth,  proper  nurture  could  easily  undo 
much  of  that  which  an  improperly  aided  and  controlled  na- 
ture had  done.  While  the  birth  of  children  is  bad,  their 
rearing  is  generally  infinitely  worse.  The  home  is  the  first 
place  where  the  awakening  mind  comes  into  contact  with 
restraint  under  law.  Upon  the  nature  of  these  first  lessons, 
their  consistency  and  justification  in  reason  depends  the  at- 
titude of  the  child  in  the  future  toward  all  forms  of  restraint 
and  law  during  his  entire  life.  Here  above  all  other  cases 
a  moral  education  on  the  part  of  the  governing  is  very  neces- 


Kinds  of  Education  71 

sary.  Will  power  and  character  must  show  themselves.  A 
broad  understanding  of  cause  and  effect  as  well  as  of  moral 
law  as  manifested  in  the  play  of  forces  in  the  physical  world 
is  necessary  —  especially  that  form  of  it  which  shows  the 
severity  and  sureness  of  punishment  consequent  upon  wrong 
doing.  Feeling  and  passion  are  absolutely  incompatible 
with  a  successful  system  of  moral  education.  In  the  home 
and  in  the  state  much  more  uniformit}7  in  human  conduct 
both  in  action  and  reaction  would  prevail  if  there  were  more 
extensive  and  more  effective  moral  education,  especially  in 
this  last  broad  sense. 

Esthetic  Education.  There  is  no  phase  of  education  that 
brings  as  much  direct  pleasure  to  man,  that  affords  him  more 
simple  joy  in  living  than  esthetic  education.  Esthetic  edu- 
cation is  based  upon  the  natural  and  instinctive  capacity 
which  all  men  have  for  desiring  the  beautiful,  the  sublime 
and  humorous  in  life.  It  is  the  training  and  developing  of 
this  power  to  further  perceive,  appreciate  and  enjoy  the 
beautiful,  sublime  and  humorous  in  the  environment.  Its 
greatest  possibility  of  exercise  and  development  as  well  as  of 
enjoyment  lies  in  the  field  of  nature,  art  and  literature.  The 
services  which  esthetic  education  renders  to  humanity  are 
many.  Turned  into  the  physical  nature  they  exalt  and  re- 
fine, turned  into  the  intellectual,  they  increase  human  hap- 
piness by  making  mental  processes  appreciative,  while  turned 
into  the  moral  nature  they  serve  as  a  powerful  check  on  all 
tendencies  to  evil  deeds  and  on  all  that  is  vicious  and  degrad- 
ing in  human  conduct. 

Genetically,  while  the  faculty  of  esthetic  perception  (the 
esthetic  sense)  appears  quite  early  in  life,  it  is  at  its  high- 
est power  of  fuctioning  during  the  early  years  of  puberty, 
appearing  usually  at  about  the  age  of  fourteen  or  fifteen 
years  and  maintaining  a  maximal  degree  of  activity  until 
the  age  of  nineteen  or  twenty  where  it  maintains  itself  for  a 
while  and  then  begins  slowly  to  wane,  the  process  of  waning 
differing  in  different  temperaments.  The  aim  of  esthetic 
education  is  to  create  in  man  high  ideals.  When  he  is  es- 
thetically  educated  he  becomes  able  to  appreciate  the  world 
about  him  as  made  visible  in  color,  form,  motion,  sound,  etc. 


72  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

Practically,  esthetic  education  is  offered  more  exclusively  in 
such  arts  as  painting,  molding,  sculpturing,  in  such  sciences 
as  music,  elocution,  poetry,  fiction,  ethics,  astronomy,  phi- 
losophy and  religion. 

Historically  because  of  the  low  cultural  position  of  man, 
his  proximity  in  the  way  of  living  to  the  lower  animals  and 
the  fact  that  the  struggle  for  existence  which  was  made 
severe  by  his  political  status  caused  him  to  spend  most  of  his 
time  in  "  earning  a  living  "  prevented  in  the  past  and  still 
prevents  to-day  the  masses  from  enjoying  esthetic  education. 
Again  esthetic  education  has  been  and  still  is  confined  chiefly 
to  the  leisure  class.  This  being  a  fact,  since  they  could 
create  the  opportunity  for  such  education  in  their  own  way 
and  since  the  remaining  groups  of  men  had  all  they  could 
do  to  agitate  for  and  demand  other  phases  of  education, 
esthetic  education  has  received  but  little  special  attention 
and  as  a  branch  of  general  education  has  yet  to  come  fully 
into  its  own.  The  public  educational  systems  of  the  country 
are  beginning  to  increase  the  opportunity  which  they  offer 
for  esthetic  education.  In  all  cities  of  any  size  in  the  coun- 
try there  are  specially  provided  courses  in  drawing,  music 
and  elementary  clay  modeling  and  molding.  In  most  of 
such  cases  there  are  specially  prepared  supervisors  who  map 
out  courses  and  keep  the  system  graded  and  harmonious. 
The  introduction  of  folk  dances  in  the  school  tends  to  con- 
tribute in  a  general  way  to  esthetic  education.  However, 
esthetic  education  in  its  entirety  is  still  regarded  to  a  great 
extent  as  cultural  and  a  luxury  fit  only  for  pursuit  by  the 
leisure  class.  Even  the  higher  schools  and  colleges  where 
distinct  courses  in  esthetic  education  are  offered  show  their 
attitude  towards  it  by  imposing  upon  those  who  seek  train- 
ing in  such  courses  high  duties  in  the  forms  of  excessive  fees. 
Many  such  schools  offer  extensive  courses  in  rhetoric,  elocu- 
tion, music,  drawing  and  painting,  but  few  of  these  offer  as 
yet  extended  courses  in  sculpturing.  Education  in  sculptur- 
ing is  chiefly  restricted  to  apprenticing  and  private  tutoring. 
In  fact  much  of  all  forms  of  esthetic  education  is  in  the 
hands  of  private  individuals,  who  pursue  it  chiefly  for  finan- 
cial gain  without  any  thought  of  fitness  or  the  capacity  to 


Kinds  of  Education  73 

give  value  for  value.  Just  a  few  higher  schools  supported  by 
public  funds  either  in  this  country  or  Europe  offer  courses  in 
painting,  sculpture  and  are  in  general  patronized.  Private 
schools  for  it  abound  everywhere.  There  are  art  studios  of 
considerable  note  in  such  cities  as  Philadelphia,  New  York, 
Boston,  in  this  country  and  in  such  cities  as  Paris,  Berlin, 
Rome,  Venice,  Milan  and  Edinburgh,  in  Europe.  Many 
schools  in  tins  country  offer  well  elaborated  courses  in  art 
and  architecture.  However,  despite  all  that  is  being  done 
along  these  lines  for  esthetic  education,  because  these  efforts 
are  chiefly  private,  and  because  private  efforts  are  always 
ill-organized  and  often  at  loggerheads  with  itself,  esthetic 
education  will  not  come  fully  into  its  own  until  it  is  taken 
over  more  extensively  by  the  systems  of  public  education 
where  the  chief  problems  of  education  are  and  must  of  neces- 
sity be  solved.  That  the  opportunity  for  good  which  esthetic 
education  offers  to  society  and  the  state  would  justify  such 
an  undertaking  few  will  dispute,  nor  will  they  deny  that 
esthetic  education  as  a  creator  of  high  ideals,  lofty  emotions 
and  a  love  of  the  good,  the  pure  and  the  refined  in  life,  and 
hence  as  a  regulator  of  human  conduct  for  good,  can  not 
be  surpassed  by  any  other  phase  of  education.  Here,  then, 
in  esthetic  education  is  a  virgin  and  fertile  field  for  expansion 
in  educational  endeavor. 

Religious  Education.  In  contra-distinction  to  moral  edu- 
cation, religious  education  aims  to  fit  man  for  the  fulfillment 
of  the  duty  and  responsibility  devolving  upon  him  out  of 
the  relation  he  bears  to  his  Maker,  God.  It  aims  to  acquaint 
him  with  the  truths  of  nature  and  of  the  revealed  word,  with 
the  varied  creeds  and  canonical  laws,  and  with  the  teachings, 
dogmas  and  tenets  of  the  church  catholic  and  of  the  various 
denominations  in  particular.  Much  of  this  kind  of  education 
we  have  inherited  from  medieval  times  when  the  church  and 
state  were  not  separate  and  each  had  a  coordinate  sphere  of 
influence.  In  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe  the  state  has 
not  successfully  alienated  the  masses  from  the  church  and 
therefore  often  yields  to  the  pressure  from  ecclesiastical 
bodies  that  they  be  allowed  to  teach  religion  as  a  regular 
subject  in  the  public  schools.     In  France  this  is  true,  though 


74  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

the  separation  is  of  more  recent  date.  In  Protestant  Ger- 
many however,  by  a  compromise  effected  under  pressure  of 
the  church  by  the  commissioner  of  Education,  though  re- 
ligion is  taught  as  a  regular  subject  in  the  public  schools 
it  is  optional  with  all  and  parents  may  at  will  either  keep 
their  children  at  home  or  send  them  to  school  during  the 
period  for  religious  instruction  (die  Religionstunde).  In 
America  because  of  the  desire  for  freedom  in  such  matters 
no  religious  education  is  offered  in  higher  institutions  of 
learning  or  schools  supported  by  public  taxes,  though  they 
all  hold  some  form  of  devotional  exercises  each  day  and  in 
some  cases  talks  upon  God  and  a  future  life  and  the  benefits 
of  right  living  are  given  from  time  to  time  as  occasion  may 
permit  or  demand.  In  denominational  schools  the  various 
religious  services  of  the  respective  denominations  are  used, 
bible  classes  held,  courses  in  various  subjects  in  theology 
offered  and  denominational  religious  literature  is  taught. 
The  effect  of  this  neglect  of  religious  education  in  protestant 
and  democratic  countries  is  easily  apparent  in  the  lowered 
religious  standards,  the  falling  off  in  voluntary  church  sup- 
port and  regular  attendance  and  in  general  in  a  lighter  regard 
for  matters  religious.  This,  because  of  its  general  tendency 
to  foster  atheism  and  infidelity,  has  become  a  source  of  alarm 
to  the  church.  As  a  result  some  agitation  is  starting  up  to 
turn  the  tide  of  affairs  in  the  direction  of  the  church  and  re- 
ligious education.  That  is,  realizing  what  this  neglect  in 
religion  means  to  its  future  growth,  the  church  is  seeking  the 
cooperation  of  the  state  in  pushing  religious  education.  In 
this  matter,  however,  the  state  having  at  the  imperative  de- 
mand of  the  church  turned  over  to  her  the  responsibility  and 
right  to  control  and  direct  religious  education  does  not  feel 
that  it  is  in  any  way  to  blame  for  the  dilemma  of  the  church 
and  responds  sluggishly  to  the  appeal  of  the  church  for  a 
provision  in  state  systems  of  education  for  a  place  for  formal 
religious  education.  It  has  been  proved  that  religious  educa- 
tion left  entirely  to  the  church  does  not  grow  apace  with 
state  education.  In  the  several  centuries  of  the  experiment, 
the  church  has  been  unable  to  maintain  the  religious  educa- 
tion of  the  masses  in  competition  with  the  education  offered 


Kinds  of  Education  75 

by  the  state.  The  education  of  the  state  has  begotten  free- 
dom and  an  advance  in  thought  with  which  the  religious  edu- 
cation of  the  church  has  not  kept  pace.  This  the  church 
shows  that  it  knows  in  its  very  appeal  to  the  state  for  aid 
by  requesting  that  it  put  a  course  for  religious  education  in 
its  regular  courses  and  maintain  it  on  a  par  with  the  other 
subjects  of  the  courses. 

The  Christian  Associations,  both  the  Young  Men's  and 
Young  Women's  associations  have  become  a  powerful  educa- 
tional force  in  American  life.  They  are  prominent  in  educa- 
tional work  in  other  countries,  but  nowhere  have  they  risen 
to  the  prominence  in  such  work  as  in  the  United  States. 
These  associations  were  originally  church  organizations  but 
in  time  outgrew  the  church  and  sought  their  own  quarters. 
They  have  not  broken  their  original  affiliations  however, 
nor  have  they  deserted  their  original  purpose.  But  they 
have  extended  their  sphere  of  operation  and  influence.  The 
original  purpose  of  the  association  was  to  bring  within  its 
doors  and  influence  that  element  of  the  citizenship  that  the 
church  could  not  attract.  To  do  this  it  attempted  to  at- 
tract to  itself  b}r  methods  common  to  the  world,  but  under 
an  influence  purged  of  the  sin  and  corruption  of  the  world. 
It  afforded  a  place  of  amusements  in  a  pure  social  atmos- 
phere. It  advocated  a  practical  religion.  To  those  who 
sought  evening  entertainment  and  reading  it  furnished  it 
but  under  elevating  conditions.  Cleanliness  was  advocated 
and  provided  for.  Association  quarters  were  provided  with 
sanitary  baths  and  a  swimming  tank.  As  the  attendance 
grew  and  support  increased,  more  attention  was  given  to 
physical  education  along  with  the  religious.  It  took  up 
social  work,  and  looked  up  and  found  quarters  for  strangers 
in  towns  to  keep  them  from  falling  into  bad  hands  and  in  with 
evil  associates.  Gradually  literary  courses  were  offered, 
also  vocational  and  industrial  courses  until  to-day  the  edu- 
cational work  of  the  association  is  in  many  localities  equal  to 
similar  work  offered  by  some  of  our  best  educational  institu- 
tions proper.  The  courses  offered  are  generally  simple, 
brief  and  practical  and  at  times  that  will  accommodate  those 
whose  work  hours  for  self-maintenance  will  only  permit  them 


76  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

to  give  the  hours  of  freedom  from  work  to  this  kind  of  effort 
for  education  and  mental,  moral  and  physical  enjoyment 
and  growth.  So  rapidly  has  this  work  grown  that  in  less 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century  it  has  grown  from  a  few  scat- 
tered organizations  to  thousands  of  branches  with  several 
million  members.  They  own  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of 
property.  At  present  the  parent  organization  is  seeking 
a  four  million  dollar  endowment  for  use  in  meeting  an  immedi- 
ate demand  for  housing  quarters.  While  the  young  men's 
branch  is  the  older,  the  young  women's  branch  keeps  up  with 
it  both  in  membership  and  field  of  usefulness.  To-day  the 
organization  maintains  branches  in  all  of  the  higher  institu- 
tions of  learning  with  a  large  student  enrollment.  The  fu- 
ture of  this  movement  cannot  be  predicted.  Its  present  use- 
fulness as  an  educational  force  in  society  cannot  be 
overestimated.  In  most  of  its  local  branches  it  is  rapidly 
becoming  a  real  educational  institution,  offering  as  was  said 
all  of  the  more  important  forms  of  education,  reaching  an 
element  of  society  that  circumstances  will  not  allow  to  take 
advantage  of  the  schools  maintained  by  public  and  private 
funds  under  a  different  regime  and  for  other  classes. 

Intellectual  Education,  Intellectual  education  is  educa- 
tion par  excellence.  All  other  forms  of  education  are  but 
variations  of  it.  Formal  intellectual  education  is  as  old  as 
civilization  itself.  Since  the  separation  of  church  and  state 
it  has  become  chiefly  the  burden  of  the  state.  Each  state 
in  accordance  with  the  civic  responsibilities  devolving  upon 
its  citizens  has  offered  them  intellectual  education.  In 
democratic  countries  for  all  alike  educational  opportunities 
are  free  and  equal.  In  limited  monarchies  where  the  "  chosen 
few  "  hold  the  reins  of  government  by  right  of  inheritance 
educational  opportunities  are  restricted  correspondingly. 
The  chief  test  of  intellectual  education  seems  to  be  on  a 
basis  of  illiteracy  statistics.  Figures  gathered  during  the 
decade  1890—1900  showed  the  United  States  to  have  one- 
tenth  of  its  population  illiterate,  England  one-twentieth  of 
its  population  so  and  Russia  more  than  one-half  of  hers  il- 
literate. The  Negro  is  the  chief  cause  of  the  high  illiteracy 
in  America.     But  while  the  Indian  is  more  illiterate  than 


Kinds  of  Education  77 

the  Negro  his  small  numbers  prevent  him  from  affecting  the 
general  illiteracy  average  of  the  country  to  such  an  extent  as 
that  of  the  Negro.  Next  to  these  (the  Negro  and  Indian) 
in  illiteracy  come  the  lower  class  of  immigrants  whose  num- 
bers cause  them  to  affect  decidedly  the  illiteracy  percentage. 
In  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  twenty-five  percent  of  the 
immigrants  during  1900-1910  according  to  the  national 
commissioner  of  education  were  illiterate.  But  in  most 
states  the  number  is  about  5  percent.  In  the  period  1900- 
1910  the  Negro  illiteracy  decreased  about  thirty  percent, 
while  that  of  the  immigrant  because  of  the  constant  influx  of 
illiterates  from  Russia  and  the  countries  of  southern  Europe 
remained  about  stationary.  The  Negro  illiteracy  and  the 
Indian  illiteracy  constitute  a  serious  problem  in  education, 
but  from  the  evidence  of  decrease  in  illiteracy  among  Negroes 
in  the  last  decade  it  would  seem  that  education  is  doing  its 
work  well  with  them.  The  immigrant  presents  a  different 
and  even  more  difficult  problem  in  a  way.  For  while  the  im- 
migrant authorities  and  the  United  States  Commissioners 
of  Education  claim  that  the  immigrants  and  their  children 
become  rapidly  educated  the  constant  influx  of  illiterates 
among  them  makes  the  problem  a  never  ending  and  almost 
hopeless  one.  This  conglomerate  citizenship  places  a 
severe  tax  on  education  and  educational  systems.  Upon  the 
success  of  the  education  given  to  all  must  depend  the  future 
of  the  country.  The  Indian  is  too  few  to  endanger  the 
national  institutions  of  government  and  the  Negro  is  so  re- 
stricted in  political  power  and  the  use  of  the  elective  fran- 
chise as  to  be  of  little  danger.  But  the  immigrants  are 
large  in  numbers  and  eligible  almost  immediately  to  citizen- 
ship. They  know  little  of  our  political  and  civic  life.  They 
are  unused  to  our  social  ideals.  Strangers  to  each,  differ- 
ent in  speech  and  creed,  crowded  together  in  poverty  and 
filth  they  are  an  easy  prey  to  political  demagogues.  Edu- 
cation here  must  deal  with  both  old  and  young.  All  alike 
must  be  prepared  for  American  citizenship  and  for  free  and 
full  participation  in  our  democratic  industrial,  social  and 
religious  life.  Here  education  both  of  the  school  and  of 
forces  outside  of  the  school  has  a  very  definite  and  delicate 


78  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

work  to  perform.  Here  adjustment  must  be  swift  and  sure 
if  the  opportunities  offered  and  responsibilities  accepted  are 
to  redound  to  the  perpetuation  of  our  government  and  the 
perfecting  of  our  national  ideals.  Opportunity  for  educa- 
tion must  be  constantly  brought  within  the  reach  of  all. 
This  is  being  done.  Herein  is  the  glory  of  our  education. 
Intellectual  education  is  being  reduced  more  and  more  to 
a  science.  Realizing  its  burdens  intellectual  education  is 
responding  nobly.  Special  schools  of  education  for  teachers 
are  being  opened  daily.  State,  County  and  City  Superin- 
tendents are  demanding  higher  grades  of  teachers  and  higher 
standards  of  efficiency  in  professional  training  are  in  vogue. 
School  journals  and  educational  magazines  as  helps  for 
teachers  abound.  Everywhere  intellectual  education  atuned 
fully  to  the  spirit  of  the  occasion  is  making  fitting  advance 
along  the  lines  necessary  for  the  future  welfare  of  the  na- 
tion. 

Practical,  Theoretical  and  Cidtnral  Education.  Besides 
the  kinds  of  education  discussed  in  the  foregoing  we  men- 
tioned also  practical,  theoretical  and  cultural  education. 
While  these  are  distinct  kinds  of  education  and  obtained  by 
a  different  viewpoint  they  do  not  require  separate  treatment 
as  such.  The  terms  explain  themselves  and  since  in  the 
actual  work  no  stress  is  laid  upon  them  only  a  word  need 
be  added  here  in  regard  to  their  meaning  and  application  in 
education.  Most  of  our  education  to-day  is  practical  in 
aim,  especially  the  lower  grade  work.  Such  of  it  that  is 
not  is  rapidly  becoming  so  because  of  the  current  demand 
for  that  kind  of  education.  By  practical  education  is  meant 
utilitarian  education,  that  kind  of  education  that  is  useful 
in  "  baking  bread."  Of  course  all  education  has  a  theoreti- 
cal side,  the  former  is  a  necessary  complement  of  the  latter. 
The  theoretical  and  abstract  in  education  is  the  forerunner 
of  the  practical  and  useful.  Theoretical  education  as  such 
while  it  has  its  reason  of  being  is  only  for  the  few  and  much 
of  it  has  little  value  at  least  for  the  masses,  outside  of  the 
historic  walls  of  the  classic  college  halls.  As  an  advance 
agent  of  practical  education  it  is  indispensable. 

In  contradistinction  to  practical,  theoretical  education  is 


Kinds  of  Education  79 

not  intended  to  be  of  any  practical  utility.  Those  who  ob- 
tain it  were  not  originally  supposed  to  have  any  needs  in 
this  world's  goods.  For  them  it  filled  an  intellectual  and 
esthetic  need.  In  this  sense  all  education  which  we  know 
now  as  a  formal  education  was  in  its  early  history  cultural, 
a  luxury,  which  only  the  rich  and  leisure  class  had  time  to 
pursue.  To-day  though  much  of  the  originally  cultural 
education  is  still  regarded  as  such  and  in  this  light  desired 
and  sought,  it  has  not  escaped  the  sordid  commercialism  of 
the  present.  By  many  cultural  education  is  made  to  "  earn 
bread."  Cultural  education  is  to  be  found  in  the  study  of 
the  romance  and  classic  languages,  music,  art,  poetry,  sculp- 
ture, painting,  drawing  and  stencil  work.  While  cultural 
education  has  not  the  place  in  our  educational  systems  that 
it  formerly  had,  it  should  be  said  in  all  justice  that  no  form 
of  education  has  contributed  more  to  the  sum  total  of  human 
enjoyment  and  to  expand  the  soul  life  of  man  than  cultural 
education. 

REFERENCE  READING 

Putnam's  "  Manual  of  Pedagogy."     Chaps.  II,  XL 

Compayre's  "  Psychology  Applied  to  Education."     Chaps.  I,  III,  XI. 

Compayre's  "  Lectures  on  Teaching."     Chaps.  II,  III. 

Spencer's  "  Education."     II,  III,  IV. 

Huxley's  "Science  and  Education."     IV,  XVI. 

Putnam's  "  Elementary  Psychology."     Chaps.  XIV,  XIII. 

Parker's  "  Talks  on  Pedagogy."     Chap.  XIV. 

Morgan's  "Studies  in  Pedagogy."     Chaps.  VI,  VIII. 

White's  "  School  Management."     Pages  105,  218,  239,  295. 

Home's  "The  Philosophy  of  Education."     Chaps.  Ill,  VI. 

Welch's  "Teachers'  Psychology."     Chaps.  XV,  XVI. 

Roark's  "  Psychology  in  Education."     XIV,  XX. 

Baldwin's  "Psychology  Applied  to  Art  of  Teaching."     XXI,  XXII. 

Hughes'  "Dickens  as  an  Educator."     Chaps.  IV,  XIV. 

King's  "  Social  Aspects  of  Education."    Chaps.  IX,  X. 

Sharpless's  "  English  Education."     Chap.  VI. 

MacArthur's  "  Education  in  its  Relation  to  Manual  Industry."     Chaps. 

I,  II,  III,  and  XVII. 
Dutton's  "  Social  Phases  of  Education."     Page  143. 
Fitch's  "  Educational  Aims  and  Methods."     Chaps.  Ill,  V. 
King's  "  Education  for  Social  Efficiency,"  XII,  XIII. 
Hanus'  "  Beginnings  in  Industrial  Education."     Chaps.  II,  III,  IV,  V. 
Snedden's  "Problems  of  Educational  Readjustment."     Chaps.   I,  VIII, 

IX. 
Adler's  "Moral  Instruction  of  Children."     Chaps.  I-V. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  AGENCIES  IN  EDUCATION 

In  the  opening  chapter  of  the  text  it  was  stated  that  the 
term  education  had  a  broad  and  a  narrow  use.  In  its  broad 
sense  it  includes  all  of  the  influences  which  combine  to  modify 
our  mental  structure  and  give  it  increased  activity.  These  in- 
fluences begin  their  work  imperceptibly  in  the  embryonic 
stage  which  later  become  perceptible  at  birth  and  continue  so 
until  death.  In  its  narrow  sense  education  includes  those  in- 
fluences which  are  restricted  in  their  effects  to  certain  life 
periods,  certain  periods  of  the  day  and  of  the  calendar  month 
and  year  and  which  are  given  over  to  the  direction  and  con- 
trol of  certain  idividuals  who  labor  at  certain  specifically 
provided  places  and  under  certain  given  conditions  of  re- 
striction and  confinement.  In  its  broad  sense  these  influences 
of  education  are  limited  only  by  the  life  history  of  the  in- 
dividual and  the  forces  of  the  universal  environment,  and 
include  all  of  those  influences  which  tend  to  modify  one's  life, 
mode  of  living  and  form  of  conduct.  In  its  narrow  sense 
education  is  usually  intended  to  carry  with  it  conceptions 
implied  in  the  terms  instruction  and  training  which  we  get 
in  school  and  which  are  planned  directly,  often  laboriously 
and  after  much  experimentation  with  an  intent  that  is  purely 
educational.  It  is  in  this  latter  sense  that  the  term  educa- 
tion is  most  generally  used.  However,  since  the  influences 
of  education  cannot  all  be  brought  under  the  head  of  educa- 
tion in  the  narrow  sense  and  also  in  order  to  obtain  a  broad 
conception  of  education  and  educational  factors  we  will  pass 
in  this  chapter  from  what  we  distinguish  as  scholastic  edu- 
cation to  what  we  have  earlier  defined  as  education  in  general. 
The  factors  of  education  regarded  from  the  viewpoint  of 
convenience  of  treatment  and  for  reason  of  the  natural  sub- 

80 


)    J     J 


The  Agencies  in  Education  81 

divisions  into  which  they  fall  are  in  the  order  of  their  as- 
cendant powers  over  the  individual,  the  home,  the  school,  the 
church,  the  state  and  society.  A  careful  study  of  these 
factors  will  show  that  they  are  not  all  planned  equally  with 
a  view  to  the  attainment  of  educational  ends.  Some  are 
planned  purely  for  this  purpose,  others  only  partly  for  it, 
while  the  others  seem  apparently  not  planned  at  all  for  this 
end.  Hence  as  directly  educational  in  intent  these  factors 
are  either  regulated  or  unregulated.  Though  it  is  plain 
that  we  can  establish  no  division  of  these  factors  with  a  strict 
line  of  demarcation  between  them  such  as  the  nature  of  the 
treatment  and  conception  here  would  demand,  yet  on  the 
contrary  they  will  overlap  each  in  many  ways,  and  each  in 
the  distinctive  subject  matter,  will  extend  to  some  extent 
into  the  field  to  be  delegated  to  the  others.  This  is  only 
as  the  agents  themselves  run  each  one  into  the  other.  The 
home,  the  school,  the  church,  the  state  and  society,  each  has 
some  things  in  common  and  some  phases  that  are  peculiar  to 
itself  and  that  serve  to  differentiate  it  from  the  other.  The 
factors  or  agents  in  education  may  be  in  general,  despite  the 
general  points  of  likeness  and  overlapping  in  conception, 
divided  into  two  groups,  this  division  being  upon  their 
original  educational  intent,  and  agreed  upon  as  adequate  for 
the  purpose  here  intended.  They  are  the  agents  that  are 
definite  and  regulated  and  those  that  are  indefinite  and  un- 
regulated in  their  educational  intent.  Those  factors  defi- 
nitely organized  for  and  immediately  directed  toward  the 
accomplishment  of  educational  ends  are,  the  school  in  its 
entirety,  the  church  in  certain  of  its  functions,  the  home  in 
most  of  its  functions,  and  the  state  in  some  few  of  its.  So- 
ciety is  so  only  in  a  general  but  to  a  very  extensive  and 
effective  degree.  Those  factors  most  indefinitely  organized 
and  unregulated  as  to  their  educational  intent  but  tending 
at  the  same  time  to  disseminate  knowledge  or  bring  about 
knowledge  giving  experience  and  to  direct  human  activity 
include  society  almost  in  its  entirety  and  the  state  to  quite 
an  extent.  On  the  other  hand,  the  church  and  the  home 
have  functions  that  are  not  intentionally  educational  in  their 
effect  but  which  must  be  conserved  in  order  not  only  that 


82  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

educational  ends  may  be  achieved  but  even  that  social  ends 
and  life  itself  may  be  achieved. 

The  Hn*n/>  The  home  broadly  speaking  is  the  chief  as 
well  as  the  oldest  institution  either  social  or  non-social  pos- 
sessed by  man.  If  understood  in  all  of  its  relations  and 
properly  administered  in  them  it  becomes  also  the  most  pow- 
erful factor  for  good  to  which  man  has  access.  The  reason 
of  being  of  the  home  lies  at  the  bottom  of  the  procreative 
instincts,  and  is  necessary  for  their  full  exercise.  As  an 
institution  the  home  is  primarily  for  producing  and  preserv- 
ing life.  All  of  its  other  functions  are  second  to  this  great 
one.  Education  itself  was  and  still  is  mostly  a  secondary, 
though,  in  the  earlier  stages  of  home  life,  a  no  less  important 
function  of  the  home  and  as  such  is  and  has  always  been 
an  unregulated  and  unorganized  factor  to  this  end.  As 
civilization  has  advanced  and  the  civil  and  social  life  with 
its  increased  duties  and  responsibilities  has  become  more  in- 
volved and  complex,  educational  demands  became  greater  as 
did  many  other  demands  upon  the  normal  forms  of  human 
existence.  Many  of  the  functions  of  the  home  earlier  re- 
garded as  secondary  became  primary  and  to-day  remain 
coordinate  with  the  reproductive  and  preservative  functions 
of  the  home.  Apart  from  furnishing  food,  clothing,  shelter 
and  protection  to  the  young  lives  that  come  into  it,  and  creat- 
ing and  maintaining  normal  and  wholesome  conditions  for  the 
full  growth  and  development  of  this  life,  a  very  explicit  duty 
of  the  home  is  in  a  manner  especially  fitted  and  properly 
regulated  to  educate  its  inmates  in  a  way  to  promote  human 
welfare  and  to  produce  happy  and  healthy  members  of  so- 
ciety. 

The  chief  cause  of  the  failure  and  inefficiency  of  the  educa- 
tional processes  of  the  world  to-day  is  that  the  unregulated 
processes  of  the  school  is  not  properly  supplemented  by  that 
of  the  home.  If  we  were  to  have  regard  for  the  most  im- 
portant factors  in  education,  time,  physical  and  moral  con- 
trol, mental  responsiveness  and  community  of  interest  all 
well  tempered  with  love  and  sympathy  and  a  disposition  to 
self-effacement  in  sacrifice,  we  would  make  school  education 
supplementary  to  the  home  instead  of  the  reverse  as  it  mostly 


The  Agencies  in  Education  83 

is  to-day.  It  is  one  of  the  most  serious  misfortunes  of  man- 
kind that  its  members  are  permitted  to  become  parents  with- 
out any  care  being  exercised  to  see  that  they  either  possess 
a  definite  or  a  correlated  knowledge  of  the  duties  of  parent- 
hood or  that  they  possess  any  trained  fitness  for  the  per- 
formance of  these  duties  even  should  they  become  in  any  way 
known.  By  the  order  of  things  all  education  of  necessity 
begins  in  the  home.  All  parents  both  civilized  and  uncivil- 
ized know  that  this  education  of  the  home  must  and  will  be 
supplemented  by  an  education  received  in  the  school  or  from 
other  sources  later  in  life.  All  home  education  should  be 
regulated,  systematized  and  graded  to  such  an  extent  that 
it  will  be  available  in  the  educational  processes  of  the  school 
and  of  life.  They  should  not,  however,  be  so  regulated  as 
to  become  a  strain  or  source  of  worry  to  the  young  child 
and  thereby  either  dull  his  faculties  of  knowledge  or  produce 
bad  effects  upon  any  part  of  the  growing  and  expanding 
organism.  For  education  in  the  achievement  of  its  ideal 
should  aim  at  the  formation  of  a  being  as  well  made  physic- 
ally as  mentally  and  morally. 

The  first  duty  of  parents  with  children  is  to  start  the 
physical  organism  of  the  child  off  properly  in  life.  The  be- 
ginning of  this  should  be  in  themselves.  They  themselves 
should  cultivate  a  soundness  of  body  and  mind  and  vigor  in 
their  bodily  functions  together  with  a  high  degree  of  de- 
velopment of  their  esthetic  nature.  They  should  surround 
themselves  in  the  home  with  a  pure  intellectual  atmosphere. 
Having  made  these  a  part  of  themselves  either  by  nature 
or  nurture,  the  laws  of  heredity  will  bring  them  into  effect 
upon  the  child  even  in  the  earliest  embryonic  period  of  the 
prenatal  life.  After  birth  these  elements  now  grounded  in 
the  organic  structure  of  the  child  they  endeavor  to  follow 
up  and  expand  b}r  guiding  and  directing  through  the  knowl- 
edge which  they  have  gained  and  the  tendencies  which  the 
child  has  inherited  into  a  wholesome  application  and  use  with 
an  especial  view  to  the  relation  and  association  which  will 
be  the  child's  in  his  present  and  future  experience  and  con- 
tact. There  is  a  natural  unfolding  both  of  mind  and  body 
accompanying   a   natural    organic    activity.     Though    this 


84  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

tendency  to  organic  activity  may  seem  at  times  overly  strong 
and  the  energy  which  it  presupposes  superfluous,  it  should 
not  be  inhibited,  but  controlled  and  directed  constantly  to- 
ward a  goal  to  be  found  in  the  type  of  civilization  and  gov- 
ernment into  which  the  child  is  born,  and  sooner  or  later 
is  to  take  his  place  as  a  self-directing  responsible  moral 
agent  and  who  as  a  factor  in  it  is  to  exercise  force.  But 
here  the  duties  of  home  do  not  stop.  They  extend  beyond 
the  immediate  bounds  of  the  home.  This  those  at  the  head 
of  the  home  and  responsible  for  the  proper  direction  of  its 
affairs  should  not  fail  to  recognize.  But  having  thus  con- 
trolled and  directed  the  forces  which  have  been  by  nature 
instituted  in  the  home,  parents  should  interest  themselves 
actively  in  the  manner  in  which  the  other  agencies  of  educa- 
tion perform  their  functions.  Failure  on  the  part  of  any  of 
these  agencies  the  school,  the  state,  the  church,  society,  will 
ultimately  return  with  power  and  evil  effect  upon  the  home 
and  either  destroy  its  effectiveness  for  educational  ends  or 
destroy  it  entirely.  How  the  educational  ends  of  the  state, 
the  church  and  society  are  administered  is  vital  to  the  home 
and  in  their  administration,  must,  if  for  no  other  reason 
than  that  of  self-preservation,  be  influenced  and  to  some  ex- 
tent shaped  by  home  influences  if  the  home  itself  is  to  be  able 
to  pursue  its  own  educational  ends  satisfactorily.  In  par- 
ticular must  the  home  see  to  it  that  the  school  performs  its 
functions  and  the  general  and  special  values  of  those  func- 
tions in  the  general  life  and  the  relation  of  those  functions 
to  the  corresponding  functions  of  the  home.  Were  this 
practice  commonly  followed,  much  of  the  useless  in  the  school 
as  well  as  much  of  the  evil  could  be  and  would  be  quickly 
removed.  A  watchful,  sympathetic  and  reasonable  parent- 
patronage  is  always  conducive  of  good  results  in  a  school. 
But  apart  from  the  intelligent  agitation  and  reform  that 
could  be  thus  effected,  the  home  knowing  by  close  contact 
and  association  what  the  school  is  aiming  to  do  and  how 
well  it  is  succeeding  in  accomplishing  its  aims  could  easily 
and  with  great  benefit  to  all  education  and  all  educational 
agencies  intelligently  supplement  school  education  with  home 
education.     Especially  would  this  be  possible  where  there  is 


Tlie  Agencies  w,  Education  85 

for  any  cause,  justifiable  or  not,  remedial  or  not,  serious 
neglect  in  the  work  which  the  school  purports  to  do  or  only 
partially  does.  Again,  on  the  other  hand,  the  home  could 
inform  the  school  of  what  it  aims  to  do  and  how  it  is  attempt- 
ing to  accomplish  its  aims  and  in  turn  what  it  wishes  done, 
and  thus  produce  a  kind  of  mutually  reciprocal  cooperation 
which  if  undertaken  intelligently  and  in  the  proper  spirit 
is  teeming  with  large  possibilities  of  good.  Of  course  all  of 
this  does  not  mean  that  the  home  must  meddle  with  the  affairs 
of  the  school  in  the  detail  of  its  working.  No  one  could 
safely  advise  that.  But  what  is  meant  is  that  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  home  should  have  a  definite  idea  of  what 
it  wishes  accomplished  by  the  school  and  opportunity  should 
be  given  for  those  charged  with  administering  the  affairs  of 
the  schools,  namely  superintendents,  boards,  principles  and 
teachers  should  have  opportunity  for  coming  together  and 
counseling  over  such  matters  and  in  a  general  way  of  agree- 
ing upon  the  things  that  the  school  should  aim  to  accomplish 
in  order  to  facilitate  and  supplement  the  educational  efforts 
of  the  home.  Public  sentiment  is  a  controlling  force  in  de- 
veloping the  growth  and  development  of  democratic  institu- 
tions in  a  democratic  country.  Schools,  superintendents, 
boards  of  education  and  others  in  authority  in  school  matters 
could  not  long  successfully  withstand  an  intelligent,  con- 
sistent, as  well  as  insistent  demand  from  its  patrons  in  regard 
to  the  work  which  they  authorize  and  direct.  Whatever  pub- 
lic sentiment  demanded  in  education  either  as  supplementary 
to  the  education  that  is  attempted  in  the  home,  or  as  cor- 
rective of  such  conditions  in  education  which  the  home  found 
it  impossible  for  any  reason  to  control,  would  be  almost 
immediately  forthcoming.  Thus  there  would  be  produced 
an  effective  progressive  education  both  in  the  home  and  in 
the  school,  resulting  in  a  brief  period  in  a  like  improvement 
in  the  kind  of  education  obtainable  from  the  church,  the 
state  and  society. 

Some  of  the  things  in  which  the  home  could  educate  and 
be  ably  aided  by  the  school  are  a  rational  care  of  the  body 
and  mind,  due  regard  for  law,  extending  from  the  simple 
rules  and  regulations   of  the  home  to   the  relatively  more 


86  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

complex  and  comprehensive  ones  of  the  school,  the  state,  the 
church  and  society,  morals,  manners  and  the  various  forms 
of  etiquette  and  conventional  usages,   courage,   and  manly 
integrity,  social  diversions,  and  social  rights  and  privileges. 
Also  in  a  way  the  home  can  regulate  the  school  curriculum 
and  maintain  therein  a  happy  normal.     Because  of  a  lack 
of  proper  adjustment  and  coordination  in  the  educational 
work  of  the  home  and  the  school  much  confusion  results  in 
our   domestic,    civil,   political    and    social   life    and    habits. 
There  is  between  them  not  a  sufficiently  definite  understand- 
ing, simply  because  the  teachings  in  the  one  did  not  properly 
accord  and  harmonize  with  the  other  and  those  conceptions 
gained  in  the  one  as  proper  were  more  or  less  out  of  harmony 
in  the  other,  the  breach  of  law  being  therefore  more  a  mis- 
take attributable  to  the  flaws  of  the  methods  and  agencies 
of  our  general  educational  methods  than  to  a  wilful  act  of 
misdemeanor  on  the  part  of  the  individual.     However,  let 
it  be  said  in  all  justice  and  with  open  pleasure  that  this 
does  not  occur  nearly  so  often  as  do  the  more  innocent  but 
no  less  painful  and  humiliating  transgression  of  the  social 
laws  by  individuals  uneducated  by  the  home,  the  school  and 
the  church.     Whatever  of  blame  for  inefficiency  and  failure 
may  rest  upon  the  other  agencies  in  education  the  home  must 
bear  its  part.     Parents  are  only  too  prone  to  shirk  their 
duty  and  then  blame  the  school  for  the  deficiencies  and  short- 
comings of  their  children.     At  best  the  work  of  the  school 
can  only  be  narrowly  restricted.     It  is  left  to  the  home  and 
the  other  living  agencies  of  the  world  at  large  to  magnify 
and  intensify  that  which  the  school  has  done.     In  order  to 
do  this  I  repeat  from  above  each  must  know  what  the  other 
aims  to  do,  and  how  well  each  aims  to  do  its  part,  and  also 
how  well  each  succeeds  in  the  attempt.     In  this  way  then, 
each  can  know  what  to  expect  of  the  other  and  see  to  it 
that  each,  at  least  to  some  extent,  does  what  it  pretends  to 
do,  in  the  manner  in  which  it  pretends  to  do  it  and  to  the 
degree  of  its  pretentions.     Whereupon  the  home,  the  church, 
the  state,  society  each  can  lend  its  efforts  to  enlarge,  in- 
tensify and  supplement  the  work  which  the  home  has  done. 
The  School.     Genetically,  the  time  was  when  all  of  the 


The  Agencies  in  Education  87 

functions  of  the  school  were  carried  on  in  and  by  the  home. 
Since  then  by  a  natural  process  of  evolution,  the  school  has 
become  divorced  from  the  home  and  now  occupies  a  place  and 
performs  a  function  as  vital  and  necessary  in  the  economy  of 
life  as  that  of  the  home.  As  mankind  progressed  in  civiliza- 
tion his  duties  and  responsibilities  as  well  as  his  relations 
in  life  became  more  and  more  complex.  Consequently,  the 
preparations  for  life  necessitated  thereby  became  more  ex- 
tended and  increasingly  comprehensive,  and  the  home  becom- 
ing gradually  overburdened  through  this  natural  expansion 
delegated  much  of  its  responsibility  in  education  to  the 
school.  Inasmuch  as  educational  methods  kept  pace  with 
growing  and  spreading  civilization  the  school  found  that 
it  had  its  hands  full  merely  to  master  and  apply  them,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  burden  of  assimilating  and  disseminating  the 
knowledge  now  so  rapidly  accumulating,  as  a  result  of  the 
highly  developed  mind  and  constantly  growing  intelligence 
of  man.  Besides  this,  apart  from  all  that  has  been  said  and 
written  about  heredity  and  the  transmission  of  acquired 
capacities,  knowledge  has  been  found  to  be  impossible  of 
transmission  either  by  laws  known  to  man  or  by  chance,  but 
must  be  gained  if  possessed  at  all  during  a  period  especially 
provided  for  by  nature  and  if  we  are  to  judge  by  its  appar- 
ent fitness  it  is  to  be  gained  chiefly  during  the  periods  of  in- 
fancy, childhood  and  youth  when  the  human  body  is  by  na- 
ture in  its  stage  of  greatest  pliantness,  plasticity  and 
physical  and  mental  impressibility.  The  demands  upon  man 
which  the  school  aims  to  meet  are  two-fold.  They  are  those 
demands  which  must  be  satisfied  if  the  physical  life  is  to 
be  properly  maintained  and  those  which  must  be  satisfied 
if  his  spiritual  life  is  to  be  properly  maintained.  The  last 
of  these  —  the  demands  of  the  spiritual  life  fall  into  the  de- 
mands of  the  moral,  religious  and  of  the  intellectual  life 
strictly  so-called,  whose  demands  were  no  less  distinct  and 
imperative  though  by  nature  immeasurably  interrelated. 

In  the  wild  and  nomadic  life  of  primitive  man  whose  de- 
mands in  life  were  simple  and  few  and  whose  activities  were 
of  a  correspondingly  simple  nature,  there  was  no  demand 
for  a  school,  neither  was  one  such  as  we  know  possible  for 


88  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

them  nor  did  such  exist.  Through  the  members  of  the  family 
or  tribe  the  child  was  taught  by  precept  and  example,  but 
chiefly  by  example.  He  learned  to  do  by  doing.  His  do- 
ing was  necessary  to  his  living.  The  parents  and  the  tribes 
were  responsible  for  his  learning  how  to  do  and  directed, 
therefore,  both  the  means  and  methods  of  his  knowing  and 
doing.  As  conditions  became  more  acute  and  resultingly 
more  complex  and  his  manner  of  living  changed,  the  struggle 
for  existence  grew,  knowledge  spread  and  tradition  became 
more  firmly  entrenched,  the  training  necessary  for  such  life 
became  more  diversified.  As  physical  needs  became  more 
varied,  customs,  manners  and  morals  became  more  complete 
and  as  the  religious  life  spread  from  fetichism  to  animism 
and  other  varieties  of  cults,  the  demands  upon  the  intellectual 
life  became  intensified.  Gradually  these  duties  because  of 
their  number  and  complexity  were  delegated  to  other  agencies. 
They  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  those  evidencing  special 
fitness  and  aptitude  in  accomplishing  desired  results  in  others. 
Fathers  wishing  their  sons  to  acquire  practical  skill  in  hunt- 
ing or  fishing,  tending  the  flocks  and  herds  of  the  family, 
in  tilling  the  soil,  or  in  driving  out  or  away  evil  spirits,  in 
healing  the  wounded  or  sick  placed  them  under  the  immediate 
care  and  direction  of  those  whom  because  of  their  fame  in 
these  things  they  believed  possessed  much  skill  and  knowl- 
edge in  some  one  of  these  special  fields.  This  was  the  initia- 
tive stage  of  the  school  as  an  institution  of  civilization.  The 
first  of  such  schools  were  crude  and  hardly  worthy  of  the 
name  in  the  sense  of  its  modern  application.  Assuming  that 
there  are  to-day  tribes  of  people  in  various  parts  of  the  earth 
who  are  not  far  removed  from  the  primitive  and  aboriginal 
in  habits  and  progress,  we  have  learned  from  them  that  the 
earliest  organized  or  systematic  attempts  grew  out  of  and 
took  the  form  of  efforts  to  "  educate  "  "  medicine  men  "  and 
the  priesthood.  These  attempts  at  education  or  forms  of 
education  were  directed  toward  training  and  instructing 
in  the  healing  art  and  the  manner  of  performing  and  holding 
the  ceremonial  observances.  Here  is  one  reason  why  all  of 
the  learning  was  chiefly  in  possession  of  the  church  and  that 
the  first  schools  were  chiefly  ecclesiastical  schools,  for  at  that 


The  Agencies  m  Educatior  89 

stage  of  development,  the  healing  power  was  believed  to  be 
a  supernatural  power  and  diseases  due  to  the  presence  in 
the  body  of  evil  and  malignant  spirits  present  therein  for 
the  purpose  of  plaguing  and  punishing  the  individual.  This 
belief  continued  for  many  centuries  and  inasmuch  as  the 
medicine  men  and  the  priesthood  exercised  much  arbitrary 
power  and  were  generally  in  cooperation  one  with  the  other 
they  became  more  or  less  strongly  united  and  grew  into  power 
together  down  through  the  ages.  During  this  time  the 
church  gradually  assumed  the  chief  part  of  the  burden  of 
education  and  what  little  education  there  was  for  the  state 
was  given  chiefly  in  conduction  with  church  education. 
Later  the  separation  between  state  education  and  church 
education  began.  Church  schools  have  had  their  heyday 
of  pomp,  glory  and  power.  At  present  both  in  Europe  and 
America  they  are  falling  into  the  background  and  state 
schools  are  occupying  the  front  of  the  stage.  But  not  only 
are  the  state  schools  historically  of  later  origin  and  develop- 
ment but  they  are  the  direct  outgrowths  of  the  church  schools. 
In  fact  all  ancient  and  medieval  intellectual  activity  was 
fostered  by  and  owes  its  very  survival  to  the  church.  For 
during  the  great  stress  and  storm  periods  that  at  times 
swept  over  Christendom  and  civilization  and  threatened  the 
complete  overthrow  and  destruction  of  all  intellectual  in- 
stitutions and  consequent  intellectual  activity,  and  the  writ- 
ten accumulated  knowledge  and  verbal  traditions  of  men, 
the  church  not  only  collected,  protected  and  preserved  these 
tools  of  progress  but  it  also  offered  an  asylum  to  the  perse- 
cuted among  the  learned  of  the  laity  and  clergy  and  not  only 
permitted  but  encouraged  their  continued  activity,  giving 
to  the  world  again  in  times  of  peace  the  stored  up  and  treas- 
ured culture  and  accumulated  knowledge.  In  the  schools 
for  the  priesthood,  as  formal  knowledge  accumulated  formal 
instruction  by  those  specially  acquainted  with  it  became 
necessary.  But  the  popularizing  of  the  school  did  not  be- 
come a  fact  until  the  industrial  arts  were  well  advanced. 
For  while  they  made  formal  education  more  necessary  they 
also  gave  more  leisure  for  the  pursuit  of  it  by  creating  a 
larger  leisure  class. 


90  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

From  this  meager  beginning  the  function  of  the  school  has 
grown  steadily  until  to-day  it  covers  every  possible  form  of 
human  endeavor.  Apart  from  intellectual  and  moral  educa- 
tion which  the  school  originally  undertook,  there  is  to  be 
obtained  through  the  school  to-day  physical  education  for 
which  as  we  have  shown  above  elaborate  preparation  for 
both  boys  and  girls  have  been  made.  Religious  educational 
opportunities  still  exist  as  provided  for  by  the  church  in 
church  schools.  In  some  sections  as  in  Germany  and  some 
parts  of  France,  as  has  been  said,  even  in  the  state  schools 
(public  schools)  religion  because  of  the  agitation  of  the 
clergy,  especially  the  catholic  clergy  has  been  made  a  regu- 
lar subject  in  the  curriculum,  though  it  is  left  optional  with 
parents  to  have  their  children  attend  upon  the  religious 
instruction  or  not,  or  as  they  wish  to,  to  have  them  excused 
from  school  during  this  hour.  Much  of  the  industrial  train- 
ing formerly  given  the  young  through  the  work  of  guilds 
and  other  such  industrial  organizations  and  by  the  appren- 
tice system  is  now  turned  over  to  the  industrial  school,  which 
because  of  the  effectiveness  as  well  as  practicalness  of  their 
work  has  become  quite  popular.  Vocational  and  profes- 
sional education  which  in  the  eariler  centuries  were  main- 
tained chiefly  through  a  system  of  apprenticeship  is  now 
also  in  the  hands  of  the  school.  Even  so  practical  a  field 
of  activity  as  agriculture  including  all  of  its  more  prominent 
phases  such  as  farming,  dairying,  poultry  culture,  animal 
husbandry,  and  horticulture  is  now  receiving  educational 
attention  from  the  school  and  courses  under  the  direction 
and  management  of  experts  are  being  offered  by  it. 

Nor  has  the  home  lost  any  opportunity  of  pushing  its 
burdens  off  upon  the  school,  until  to-day  that  work  which 
has  always  been  considered  par  excellence  the  work  of  the 
home  —  giving  training  in  the  household  arts,  domestic 
economy  and  domestic  science  have  finally  been  pushed  off 
by  the  home  and  found  their  way  into  the  school  room  re- 
vised and  adapted  to  the  methods  of  the  school  and  reduced 
to  a  science,  until  now  our  girls  may  learn  in  the  school  how 
best,  most  easily,  and  most  speedily  to  perform  all  of  the 
duties  of  the  home,  from  the  very  important  latest  methods 


The  Agencies  m  Education  91 

and  means  of  fumigation  to  avoid  and  overcome  infection 
and  preventing  common  diseases,  to  cooking  a  meal  of  a  very 
simple  or  elaborate  fare  and  serving  it  in  a  most  wholesome 
and  appetizing  manner.  This  is  the  scope  of  the  work  done 
educationally  by  the  modern  school.  Truly  it  is  great.  Its 
power  for  good  to  humanity  is  unlimited.  All  the  more  then 
should  we  see  to  it  that  it  performs  its  functions  well.  The 
school  is  a  necessity  with  us  to-day.  It  would  seem  that  out- 
side of  the  reproductive  function  the  school  has  by  absorbing 
nearly  all  of  the  regulated  and  directed  forms  of  education  of 
the  home  almost  put  it  out  of  the  educational  business. 
Though  there  is  a  part  of  educational  work  that  devolves  upon 
the  home  that  the  school  can  never  entirely  absorb.  Just  how 
the  home  stands  in  relation  to  the  school,  has  already  been 
shown.  The  one  is  a  supplement  to  the  other.  The  best 
school  can  only  be  obtainable  through  close  contact  with  and 
full  understanding  of  the  home  and  its  explicit  educational 
functions.  Likewise  the  best  in  the  home  educationally  is 
only  attainable  where  there  is  close  association  with  the  school 
and  through  a  full  knowledge  and  understanding  of  the  func- 
tion and  processes  of  the  school  together  with  a  friendly  and 
reciprocal  relation  which  produces  a  wholesome  harmonious 
cooperation  in  the  training  of  the  young  body  in  the  way  it 
should  grow,  the  young  intellect  in  the  way  it  should  think, 
the  young  soul  in  the  way  it  should  feel  and  react  upon  feel- 
ing issuing  in  action,  and  the  young  hands  in  the  way  they 
should  manipulate.  Thus  we  see  that  the  home,  though 
primarily  and  primitively  a  factor  in  regulated  education  has 
been  and  is  being  displaced  in  performing  this  function  by 
the  school  whose  formal  educational  functions  the  school 
already  had  almost  entirely  absorbed. 

The  Church.  The  history  of  the  church  as  an  agency  in 
formal  education  is  very  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  home. 
Here,  too,  the  school  has  to  quite  an  extent  absorbed  the  func- 
tion of  an  ancient  informal  education.  Since  the  church 
evolved  historically  from  the  home  and  in  time  before  the 
school,  and  historically  the  school  as  an  institution  is  almost 
in  its  entirety  an  evolved  product  of  the  church  the  treat- 
ment of  these  two  in  preceding  paragraphs  has  to  a  great 


92  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

extent  involved  the  discussion  of  the  function  and  evolution 
of  the  church  and  its  relation  to  both  formal  and  informal 
education.  The  church,  as  we  saw,  grew  out  of  the  impera- 
tive demand  everywhere  present  in  the  mind  of  man  for  some 
means  of  placating  the  forces  of  nature  and  controlling  the 
phenomena  of  mind  as  exhibited  in  the  living  and  from  these 
inferred  as  a  power  present  in  the  dead.  The  earliest  his- 
torical evidence  of  social  evolution  is  found  in  the  ceremonial 
rites  and  religious  observances  at  the  head  of  which  stood 
the  priesthood  and  the  medicine  man.  Each  was  learned 
and  excelling  in  his  art;  the  former  in  placating  the  forces 
of  nature  and  both  the  friendly  and  unfriendly  spirits  of  the 
dead  and  sometimes  of  the  living;  the  latter  in  healing  the 
sick  and  administering  to  the  diseased.  Closely  allied  to  and 
in  function  associated  with  the  priesthood  were  the  sorcerer, 
the  wizard  and  the  shaman.  With  man  in  this  state  of  de- 
velopment everything  was  anthropocentric,  that  is  every- 
thing by  the  men  of  this  stage  of  development  was  likened  unto 
them  in  their  modes  of  acting  and  manner  of  thinking  and 
feeling. 

From  this  early  and  crude  beginning  the  church  grew  into 
a  powerful  institution  with  intricate  institutional  rites  and 
observances  which  she  maintained  successfully  against  all 
external  attack  and  became  in  every  way  "  a  very  present 
help  in  trouble  "  to  mankind  in  the  period  of  stress  and  dire 
trouble,  until  corruption  from  within  sapped  its  vitality  and 
ate  out  its  core  leaving  it  in  many  instances  but  a  mere 
wreck  of  its  former  self,  a  victim  to  the  reconstructive  forces 
of  an  outraged  and  revolting  public  sentiment  from  which 
it  will  probably  never  succeed  in  wresting  its  former  power 
and  in  becoming  its  former  self. 

In  the  great  division  of  labor  that  came  on  with  the  re- 
vival of  learning,  the  advance  in  science  and  philosophy  and 
the  creation  of  new  industrial  institutions  and  new  forms 
of  education,  at  a  time  when  the  church  was  weak  and  had 
as  a  result  little  influence  in  temporal  affairs  much  of  its 
educational  functions  were  passed  over  to  the  school  some 
voluntarily  and  some  under  legal  compulsion  or  under  the 
stress  of  a  powerful  public  opinion.     These  have  been  re- 


The  Agencies  vn  Education  93 

tained  by  the  school  and  been  embodied  regularly  in  its 
processes.  However,  in  all  catholic  countries  and  in  some 
protestant  countries  the  church  still  has  much  of  its  formal 
educational  functions  remaining  with  it.  In  protestant 
countries  where  state  and  church  are  distinctly  divorced  there 
is  a  strong  sentiment  against  the  school,  which  is  maintained 
by  the  state  through  public  taxation  attempting  to  carry 
on  in  its  regular  educational  work  any  formal  religious  edu- 
cation, a  sentiment  which  is  due  in  all  probabilities  to  the  fact 
that  science  is  at  times  at  variance  with  religious  dogma, 
whereupon  the  church  attempts  to  control  and  direct  the 
movements  of  science  which  science  resents,  and  to  the  fact 
that  science  has  become  more  popularized,  liberal  and  ra- 
tional while  religion  has  remained  stolid  and  dogmatic  and 
is  as  a  consequence  less  fully  rationalized  and  opposed  to 
much  in  science  which  is  advanced  and  of  aid  to  the  world's 
material  progress.  Dogmatic  religious  education  and  liberal 
secular  education  do  not  go  well  together.  Hence  has  come 
their  separation  and  b}7  the  very  nature  of  the  case  the 
omission  of  formal  religious  education  in  the  scientific  proc- 
esses of  the  school.  This  has  been  done  upon  the  demand 
of  the  church  and  with  the  expressed  understanding  that 
she  be  left  with  a  free  hand  to  administer  religious  education. 
Now  when  it  is  appearing  that  the  church  is  not  holding  the 
citizenship  like  the  school,  she  is  seeking  the  aid  of  school 
by  asking  that  certain  forms  of  religious  education  be  looked 
after  by  the  school.  However,  as  far  as  the  real  work  of 
education  is  concerned  the  church  quite  unlike  the  home  has 
left  for  it  still  considerable  of  formal  education  to  do. 
The  branches  of  education  in  which  the  church  instructs  are 
religious  histories  and  literature  and  certain  special  theo- 
logical sciences.  In  Christian  lands  it  is  the  history  and 
literature  of  the  life  and  acts  of  Christ  and  the  Christian 
church  and  the  geography  and  history  of  Christ's  native  land 
or  country,  Palestine  and  of  its  chief  cities  such  as  Jerusa- 
lem, Jericho,  Tyre,  Sodom  and  Gomorrha.  In  pagan  coun- 
tries it  may  be  either  Buddha,  Mohammed,  Zoroaster,  etc.,  as 
the  case  may  be.  Outside  of  theological  seminaries  and  re- 
ligious schools,  but  little  is  done  by  the  school  to  propagate 


94  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

and  study  religion  and  religious  literature  either  Christian 
or  pagan.  The  church  preserves  and  propagates  this  as 
her  own  specific  right  and  duty.  The  Sunday  school  was  or- 
ganized as  an  adjunct  to  the  church  for  the  purpose  of 
properly  instructing  the  young  in  Christian  tenets  and  teach- 
ings and  Christian  history  and  literature.  The  church 
through  its  ministry  in  the  synagogue,  monastery,  abbey, 
convent,  and  other  church  buildings  such  as  schools,  semina- 
ries, colleges  and  universities  is  supposed  to  perform  a  func- 
tion like  that  of  the  Sunday  School  for  its  more  matured 
membership.  The  work  of  the  Sunday  School  is  poorly  or- 
ganized, without  method  and  system,  the  teachers  are  poorly 
instructed  from  the  viewpoint  of  intelligence  and  in  most 
cases  ill-fitted  for  their  work.  Of  necessity,  then,  formal 
education  in  religion  will  be  of  little  value  to  Christendom 
until  it  realizes  the  importance  of  its  mission,  the  value  of  the 
material  it  offers  to  mankind  and  bring  into  use  in  the  in- 
struction in  and  dissemination  of  it  the  most  advanced 
methods  employed  by  the  secular  schools,  and  employs  a 
teaching  force  in  a  like  manner  specially  prepared  and 
equipped  with  the  proper  tools  for  its  work.  The  church 
takes  much  for  granted  when  it  enters  into  its  formal  educa- 
tional work  with  the  lack  of  any  thorough  system  of  grada- 
tion, and  method  in  the  spreading  of  a  knowledge  so  foreign 
to  the  present  thought  and  activities  of  men,  but  so  potent 
for  the  general  uplift  and  betterment  of  humanity. 

In  the  church  services  themselves,  there  is  even  a  greater 
lack  of  systematic  formal  education.  Instead  of  systematic 
instruction,  in  the  comparatively  few  pulpits  where  sermons 
are  prepared  and  delivered  in  a  manner  calculated  to  con- 
form to  the  degree  of  mental  development  of  the  hearers 
there  is  no  collective  system  of  such  methods  in  any  church, 
or  churches,  denominations  or  cities.  So,  with  all  of  its 
earnestness  and  effort  the  church  almost  completely  nulli- 
fies its  capacity  for  good  in  an  educational  way,  by  the  dis- 
regard or  ignorance  of  all  formal  educational  processes  and 
methods.  With  this  state  of  affairs  it  can  be  and  is  easily 
seen  why  the  church  has  fallen  far  short  of  its  real  possibili- 
ties in  formal  education,  and  has  thus  lost  much  of  its  power 


The  Agencies  m  Education  95 

for  usefulness  and  consequently  its  hold  upon  the  people. 
Few  people  go  to  church  to-day  in  a  spirit  of  real  search  for 
knowledge  either  sacred  or  secular,  but  more  for  a  general 
social  contact,  to  be  aroused  in  sentiment  and  emotion  by 
the  music  and  prayer  and  by  these  edified  and  nourished 
in  an  indefinite  way  rather  than  for  any  definite,  concrete, 
clearly  preconceived  line  of  reflection,  or  for  the  purpose  of 
being  given  any  particular  subject  matter  either  in  quality 
or  quantity  for  progressive  thought  that  has  any  particular 
rank  or  position  in  a  line  or  system  of  thought,  for  which 
the  listening  mind  has  been  prepared  and  put  into  a  state 
of  expectancy  either  by  that  which  has  preceded  or  which 
by  announcement  he  knows  is  to  come.  Most  people  go  to 
church  only  out  of  a  morbid  custom  for  whose  continuance 
there  is  for  them  no  rational  ground.  Many  others  go  to 
church  because  during  that  time  there  is  no  other  place  so 
appropriate  or  convenient,  though  it  is  a  reflection  on  the 
church  to  acknowledge  it.  While  others  go  there  merely  as 
a  meeting  place  for  a  higher  form  of  social  contact  and  en- 
joyment. Besides  this  there  is  a  floating,  curious  element 
in  the  church  membership  who  attend  any  church  which  at 
the  moment  happens  to  be  popular.  It  may  have  a  new 
minister,  an  excellent  choir  or  a  fine  church  structure  or  it 
may  be  in  a  convenient  locality.  It  may  be  a  fashionable 
church  or  may  have  in  its  membership  certain  ones  whose 
social  station  we  emulate  or  whose  recognition  or  contact 
we  desire  for  wordly  or  even  sordid  ends.  With  an  attend- 
ing membership  thus  irregularly  and  loosely  attending  and 
having  such  superficial  reasons  for  attending  services,  the 
meager  and  limited  education  which  the  church  can  give 
through  its  forms  of  assemblage  and  worship  is  of  necessity 
slight  and  inconsiderate.  Then,  too,  the  church  member- 
ship is  as  a  whole  an  adult  membership  whose  opinions  are 
pretty  well  formed  and  whose  store  of  religious  knowledge 
is  pretty  well  what  it  will  ever  be.  To  these  the  educational 
grounds  for  attendance  upon  church  worship  are  not  so 
much  for  the  purpose  of  their  religious  education  as  for 
the  strengthening  and  renewing  of  that  religious  education 
which  they  already  have.     But  from  an  educational  view- 


96  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

point  this  can  be  of  little  value  to  the  church.  From  another 
viewpoint  by  its  regular  church  services  the  church  offers 
an  asylum  to  its  own  membership  and  to  the  world  at  large 
who  desire  it  from  the  attacks  of  the  non-churchgoing  public. 
While  this  is  of  but  little  educational  value  in  itself,  through 
this  fact  it  is  one  of  the  church's  chief  sources  of  influence 
upon  the  people  both  in  its  membership  and  non-membership, 
secondarily  by  bringing  these  people  within  its  reach  this 
then  becomes  a  means  of  exercising  an  educational  influence 
on  the  part  of  the  church  of  no  inconsiderable  power.  In 
the  world  about  us  we  see  and  hear  much  that  is  contrary  to 
the  teachings  of  the  church,  and  to  Christian  dogma,  often- 
times the  church  is  fiercely  assailed  and  even  in  some  of  its 
strongholds  seriously  imperiled.  For  those  whose  faith  is 
small  and  thus  easily  shaken,  the  church  services  offer  an 
opportunity  for  gathering  and  communion,  furnishes  a  means 
of  stimulation  and  encouragement  for  them  in  their  beliefs 
and  thus  aids  them  in  maintaining  and  continuing  their  Chris- 
tian life.  In  this  besides  being  disciplinary  the  church  is 
educative. 

The  State.  The  state  as  an  educational  factor  belongs 
to  the  group  of  unregulated  agencies  regarded  from  the  view- 
point of  its  educational  intent.  However  the  state  is  edu- 
cative in  many  ways  that  are  decisive  and  pronounced. 
Through  its  legal  processes,  its  penitentiary  and  other  puni- 
tive institutions,  reform  schools  and  reformatories  it  teaches 
rebellious  spirits  lessons  that  they  have  obstinately  refused 
to  learn  elsewhere  and  previously  to  coming  to  these.  The 
understanding  of  the  legislative  machinery,  its  methods  of 
operation  and  the  effects  of  these  upon  the  citizenship  in 
general;  the  function  and  flaws  of  the  judicial  machinery, 
the  administration  of  justice,  both  successfully  and  unsuc- 
cessfully applied,  the  executive  of  the  state  as  a  check  upon 
the  other  two  departments  and  upon  individual  work  all 
teach  the  citizenship  lessons  in  civic  duties  and  responsi- 
bilities to  an  extent  and  in  a  way  that  neither  the  home,  the 
school  nor  the  church  could  succeed  in  doing.  In  regulating 
commerce,  travel,  maintaining  public  highways,  museums  and 
libraries  and  institutions  for  the  deaf  and  blind  and  feeble 


The  Agencies  in  Education  97 

minded  and  insane  (that  is  the  partially  demented  patients 
of  whom  all  such  institutions  contain  a  large  number)  the 
state  performs  a  function  that  is  highly  though  only  spe- 
cially educative.  In  maintaining  a  library  for  shelving  and 
exhibiting  for  use  state  records  and  other  official  reading 
matter,  in  creating  opportunity  of  learning  trades  for  the 
inmates  of  the  penitentiary,  reform  schools  and  the  various 
asylums,  in  supporting  agricultural  experimental  stations, 
weather  bureaus  and  experts  in  farm  and  other  kindred  form 
of  demonstration  work  such  as  that  carried  on  in  general  by 
the  department  of  health  and  in  particular  when  contagion 
and  epidemics  threaten,  by  the  fire  commissioner,  etc.,  and 
in  seeing  to  the  publication  and  distribution  of  the  literature 
instructing  in  such  work,  the  state  becomes  formally  educa- 
tive in  its  intent.  By  the  holding  of  expositions  and  con- 
gresses both  national  and  international,  the  holding  of  fairs 
both  county  and  provincial,  the  state  exercises  again  a  func- 
tion that  is  particularly  educational,  attendance  upon  which 
is  often  worth  more  educationally  than  whole  periods  of 
regulated  study  in  college  or  university,  by  promulgating 
laws  against  vagrancy  and  laws  for  compulsory  education, 
laws  raising  the  standard  of  educational  qualifications  and 
laws  establishing  minimum  school  terms,  the  state  is  exer- 
cising a  function  that  makes  it  in  intent  an  educational 
agency  or  factor. 

Society.  The  chief  source  of  man's  education  both  in 
quality  and  quantity  is  obtained  through  social  contact  and 
free  access  to  social  institution,  though  they  are  merely  in- 
cidentally so.  The  functions  of  society  are  unregulated 
for  the  attainment  of  educational  ends.  Under  the  head  of 
social  education  come  all  individual  and  collective  effort  which 
aims  to  further  individual  or  collective  self  expression.  In 
a  certain  sense  everything  which  man  does  is  in  a  way  educa- 
tive and  life  is  the  one  great  school.  All  forms  of  social  in- 
tercourse while  a  pleasurable  one,  is  a  very  prominent  source 
of  education,  both  in  knowledge  of  conduct  and  knowledge  of 
fact.  Under  social  intercourse  comes  travel.  Travel  is  a 
most  highly  educational  process.  Through  it  we  learn  of 
both  people  and  places,  and  the  products  both  of  man  and 


98  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

nature.  The  education  gained  is  also  both  liberal  and  varied. 
It  gives  a  fulness  to  the  concepts  of  reading  and  study  that 
could  not  be  obtained  in  any  other  way.  So  highly  has  the 
educational  value  of  travel  been  rated  that  many  institutions 
of  learning  require  stipulated  amounts  of  travel  either  do- 
mestic or  foreign  or  both  as  a  condition  of  graduation  in 
certain  courses  of  study  which  they  offer.  This  is  especially 
true  in  the  case  of  contiguous  countries  of  Europe.  Stu- 
dents for  example  in  German,  French  or  English  Universities 
having  as  their  major  subject  any  of  the  Romance  or  Teu- 
tonic languages  are  required  to  live  in  that  country  at  least 
six  months  and  learn  first  hand  the  customs  of  the  people, 
their  language  and  institutions,  before  admission  to  the  work 
immediately  preparatory  to  the  taking  of  the  examination 
leading  to  the  degrees.  Daily  papers,  all  periodical  litera- 
ture and  libraries  are  educational  in  their  influence.  Hence 
their  presence  in  so  many  homes.  Much  educational  work 
is  done  to-day  by  the  lecture  courses  of  the  cities  during  the 
winter  season  and  the  chautauquas  of  the  summer.  Though 
these  lyceums  and  lecture  bureaus  have  become  highly  popu- 
lar chiefly  as  a  source  of  entertainment,  much  of  their  patron- 
age is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  educational  value  of  the 
entertainment  which  they  offer.  The  theater,  too,  is  a 
potent  educational  factor  maintained  for  social  intercourse 
and  entertainment.  Here  while  there  is  much  to  be  con- 
demned there  is  also  much  that  is  beneficial  and  of  high  edu- 
cational value.  The  playground  in  its  mighty  lessons  of 
cooperation,  self-subjugation  and  self-denial,  courage,  en- 
durance and  self-control,  apart  from  being  a  potent  force 
for  socialization  is  also  a  powerful  educational  factor. 
When  the  playground  is  under  direct  skillful  supervision 
and  the  child  activity  directed  along  lines  preconceived  and 
chosen  for  their  ability  to  develop  power,  skill  and  endurance 
as  well  as  fairness  and  fellowship,  it  lays  the  basis  of  a  char- 
acter and  teaches  a  lesson  that  the  school  could  never  in 
its  most  visionary  dreams  hope  to  teach.  But  nowhere  docs 
one  learn  the  vastness  of  human  endeavor  and  the  intricate 
interdependence  of  all  industrial  and  vocational  activity 
and  their  educational  value  until  he  enters  into  the  field  itself. 


The  Agencies  m  Education  99 

Here  one  soon  loses  any  original  ideas  that  he  may  have  had 
of  his  independence  and  irresponsibility.  He  learns  his  real 
insignificance  as  well  as  true  worth  and  real  importance  in 
the  world,  which  serves  decidedly  to  sober  and  temper  him. 
Contact  with  the  ponderous  machinery  of  these  large  indus- 
trial plants  and  the  workings  of  the  vast  systems  of  hire, 
directing  labor  and  discharging  it  is  a  great  and  valuable 
lesson.  Society  is  indeed  a  great  educational  agency.  It 
is  this  from  our  first  to  our  last  contact  with  it.  Many  of 
the  lessons  which  it  teaches  are  hard  and  bitter,  and  the 
cost  of  its  teachings  are  sometimes  high,  especially  to  the 
fractious  and  the  rebellious  ones.  But  no  agency  in  educa- 
tion is  as  effective  in  the  power  to  impress  its  facts  upon 
us  as  is  society.  It  is  too  busy  working  out  the  progress 
and  development  of  the  whole  to  give  much  time  and  con- 
sideration to  the  individual.  A  blind,  insensate  mechanical 
monster,  one  who  cannot  fall  in  with  it,  soon  uses  up  his 
meager  supply  of  energy  in  fruitless  resistance  or  efforts 
at  change  and  is  crushed  out  and  covered  up  by  the  dust  of 
those  ground  up  and  shaken  off  from  its  ever  moving  ma- 
chinery. We  learn  of  it  by  being  part  and  parcel  of  it.  In 
no  other  way  could  we  so  effectually  be  taught  by  it.  Its 
methods  are  infinitely  varied  and  many,  but  they  are  not  those 
either  of  the  home,  the  school,  the  church,  the  state,  but  all 
of  these  and  more  too.  Society  has  educational  methods 
and  processes  of  its  own.  But  however  mighty  an  educa- 
tional factor  it  is,  it  must  be  classed  as  an  unregulated  and 
undirected  educational  agency. 

REFERENXE  READING 

Rosenkranz's  "  Philosophy  of  Education."     Part  II,  Chap.  I. 

Scott's  "  Social  Education."     Chap.  V,  I. 

O'Shea's  "Social  Development  and  Education."    Chaps.  XI,  XII. 

Kings    "Social   Aspects    of   Education."     Chaps.    I,   II,    III,   IV,   XV, 

XIX. 
Home's    "  Psychological    Principles    of    Education."     Part    II,    Chaps. 

XXXI   XXXII    XXXIII. 
Gillette's  "'vocational  Education."     Chaps.  Ill,  IV,  IX,  VIII. 
Gesell's  "  The  Normal  Child  and  Primary  Education."     Chap.  XXII. 
Blair's    "Mottoes    and    Commentaries    of   Froebel's    Mother-play."     Pp. 

42-49. 
Parker's  "  History  of  Modern  Elementary  Education."    Chap.  III. 


100  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

Blow's  "Educational  Issues  in  the  Kindergarten."     Chap.  X. 

De  Garmo's  "  Principles  of  Secondary  Education."     Vol.  I,  Chap.  III. 

Harris'     "  Psychologic     Foundations     of     Education."     Chaps.     XXI. 

XXXII. 
Scott's  "Social  Education."     Chap.  XII. 
Pickard's  "School  Supervison."     Appendix  A. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  SCHOOL 

Its  Location,  Environment,  Equipment,  Heating, 
Lighting,  Sanitation,  Etc. 

Its  Location.  As  the  term  is  here  used  the  school  refers 
to  the  building  or  structure  in  which  the  pupils  or  students 
are  wont  to  gather  for  their  daily  routine  exercises  of 
reciting  their  lessons  and  receiving  the  guidance  and  help 
of  the  teacher  in  explaining  to  them  that  in  their  lessons 
which  they  do  not  understand,  directing  them  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  their  future  lessons  and  conducting  other  exercises 
considered  as  adjuncts  to  these.  The  school  as  here  used 
may  be  a  building  of  one  room  or  many  rooms.  It  should 
be  located  in  such  a  place  of  convenience  as  will  afford  the 
greatest  ease  of  approach  to  the  greatest  number  of  pupils. 
This  of  course,  is  merely  a  proposition  in  abstract  justice 
and  as  an  idea  will  be  agreed  to  by  all.  In  the  actual  work 
of  practice  many  reasons  mostly  local  will  arise  to  cause 
variation  from  this  general  principle.  On  general  principles, 
also  it  is  generally  intended  that  a  school  should  be  located 
as  near  the  center  of  population  of  the  school  district  as 
possible,  all  other  things  being  equal.  In  practice  again 
this  proposition  will  meet  with  various  forms  of  modification 
according  as  various  circumstances  and  conditions  enter  to 
induce  change.  For  example  inasmuch  as  land  near  the 
center  of  population  is  in  greater  demand  than  land  off 
the  center  of  population  the  cost  of  the  land  at  the  center 
of  population  may  be  considered  as  unreasonably  high  or 
it  may  even  be  beyond  the  financial  means  of  the  school 
authorities.  Besides  these,  other  conditions  of  cost  price 
may  serve  to  thwart  the  putting  into  practice  of  this  prin- 
ciple.    Again  means  of  travel  are  not  always  best  in  the 

101 


102ft I  ,*•*•.      Eduqqtioh  yn  Theory  and  Practice 

center  ;e£t.^piiteicwi/*thoiigh  it  is  generally  expected  that 
they  should '"be.*  Consequently  oftentimes  points  more  or 
less  off  of  the  center  of  population  may  be  in  the  end 
actually  nearer  in  the  reduction  of  the  amount  of  time  con- 
sumed by  the  pupils  in  getting  to  and  from  school.  In 
our  own  civilization  the  chief  aids  to  attendance  on  school 
are  good  roads  in  the  country  and  paved  streets  in  the  city. 
To  these  in  more  recent  years  have  been  added  interurban 
cars  and  regular  service  in  street  cars.  For  the  well  situated 
in  life,  materially,  horses  and  buggies  or  carriages,  bicycles 
and  even  automobiles  serve  also  to  bring  schools  and  school 
opportunity  within  easy  reach.  In  this  way  schools  though 
spatially  more  distant  from  pupils  may  by  the  various  means 
of  travel  become  relatively  nearer,  and  vice  versa.  In  cities 
with  all  of  the  modern  means  of  travel  and  conveyance  the 
particular  advantage  to  be  gained  would  be  perhaps  best 
conserved  by  locations  of  school  buildings  near  one  or  more 
street  car  lines  through  the  district,  or  perhaps  better,  if 
these  two  or  more  lines  crossed  each  other,  at  or  near  the 
junction  of  such  lines.  In  rural  and  country  districts  this 
advantage  would  perhaps  be  best  conserved  by  locating  at 
or  near  the  junction  of  two  or  more  roads,  these  being 
picked  for  the  amount  of  travel  which  they  facilitate,  the 
maxim  being,  the  better  the  road  the  greater  is  the  ease 
of  travel  along  it.  As  to  the  grounds  themselves  modern 
science  gained  through  almost  unlimited  experience  and  ex- 
periment, has  proved  that  the  question  of  their  character, 
location,  size  (amount  of  play  space  afforded  each  pupil), 
slope,  drainage  and  general  healthfulness  is  a  very  import- 
ant question.  Especially  is  this  the  case  when  these  are 
considered  from  the  viewpoint  of  general  service  schools 
shall  render  their  patrons  and  the  degree  of  physical  well- 
being  they  are  intended  to  furnish  for  the  school  children. 
From  the  facts  taught  us  by  the  science  of  medicine  and 
the  facts  and  results  brought  to  our  notice  by  physical 
education  it  has  been  shown  that  these  things  seriously  affect 
the  health  of  the  child.  And  the  health  of  the  child  is  worth 
more  to  it,  to  its  family,  the  state  and  society  than  any 
mere   bit   of  learning   that   it   gains    in   the    school    at   the 


The  School  103 

hands  of  the  teacher.  Because  of  the  advantages  indicated, 
above  all,  ground  chosen  for  school  building  and  play  ground 
purposes  should  be  by  nature  high  and  well  drained.  Low- 
lands are  damp  and  more  or  less  impervious  to  water  and 
are  a  harbor  for  all  kinds  of  insects,  which  breed  there 
and  nurse  and  spread  all  manners  of  diseases  and  pestilences. 
Besides  this  the  bacteria  of  many  diseases  such  as  catarrh 
in  its  various  forms  and  affections  of  the  bronchia,  lungs, 
pleura  and  mucous  membranes  are  said  to  have  their  "  hang 
out  "  in  these  places,  from  which  as  a  result  of  constant 
exposure  infection  would  be  correspondingly  easy.  Modern 
agriculture  has  taught  us  much  as  to  the  nature  and  contents 
of  various  soils  and  subsoils.  Geology  has  given  us  still 
more.  From  these  sources  we  learn  that  clay  soils  and  sub- 
soils are  particularly  to  be  avoided  as  sites  for  the  school 
and  grounds.  Clay  soils  are  moist,  cold  and  clammy  and 
send  off  moist  vapor  constantly.  Many  subsoils  while  appar- 
ently dry  and  well  drained  on  the  surface  carry  what  is  known 
commonly  as  free  or  ground  water.  In  sections  where  such 
subsoils  are  present  and  ground  water  abounds  cellars  often- 
times become  filled  with  water  and  when  not  thus  filled  with 
water  they  are  cold,  damp  and  unhealthy.  Oftentimes,  too,  a 
few  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  rocky  ledges  be- 
come pockets  acting  as  reservoirs  for  the  water  which  per- 
colates through  the  interstices  of  the  soil.  This  ground 
water  is  not  the  same  as  the  so-called  subterranean  water 
which  comes  from  greater  depths  and  differs  from  this  chiefly 
in  being  surcharged  with  various  mineral  elements  that  make 
it  very  healthy  and  as  such  not  a  menace  but  a  strong  con- 
tributor to  health.  Land  used,  therefore,  not  only  for  school 
sites,  but  for  any  kind  of  building  purposes  should  be  thor- 
oughly drained  of  all  forms  of  water,  both  surface  water 
and  ground  water.  It  is  better  that  it  be  so  drained  by  na- 
ture, but  if  nature  is  against  the  proper  drainage  then  arti- 
fice should  step  in  and  do  what  nature  has  not  done.  If  a 
subsoil  carries  ground  water  it  can  be  discovered  by  tests 
being  made  through  boring  or  digging  of  holes  into  the  soil 
or  subsoil  and  leaving  these  exposed  for  a  few  days  when 
the  ground  water  will  show  its  presence  by  gathering  in  these 


104  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

holes,  whereupon  it  may  be  at  one's  convenience  pumped 
out  or  drained  off.  The  land  itself  should  be  as  nearly  as 
possible  free  from  organic  matter.  For  organic  matter  in 
the  first  place  tends  to  hold  water  and  thereby  prevents  drain- 
age and  in  the  second  when  exposed  to  the  air  and  the  actinic 
force  of  the  sun's  rays  decomposes  and  putrefies,  robbing  the 
air  of  its  health  giving  oxygen  and  surcharging  it  with  all 
manner  of  odoriferous  and  disease  bearing  impurities,  which 
by  means  of  various  physical  agencies,  such  as  warm  air  or 
hydrostatic  pressure,  raises  the  ground  water  to  the  surface 
and  the  heat  causing  evaporation  fills  the  adjacent  air  with 
impurities  which  in  time  gain  entrance  to  and  fill  the  build- 
ing with  impure  if  not  contaminated  and  disease  laden  air. 
All  of  these  things  mean  much  to  the  general  good  of  the 
school  and  should  be  carefully  studied  by  those  interested 
in  or  charged  with  the  responsibility  of  finding  proper  loca- 
tion for  a  school. 

Its  Environment.  It  goes  without  the  saying  that  from 
the  very  mission  that  the  school  is  charged  to  perform,  namely 
to  produce  normal,  healthy,  wholesome  beings  in  mind,  soul 
and  body,  and  to  develop  and  train  them  for  the  greatest 
amount  of  productive  activity,  it  must  have  the  very  best 
physical,  mental  and  moral  environment.  To  begin  with 
these  ends  in  general  can  be  best  conserved  by  the  school 
being  well  away  from  all  noise  and  such  disturbing  agencies 
of  the  city,  town,  village  and  rural  community  as  contribute 
thereto.  It  should  be  far  away  from  the  industrial  sections 
with  their  massive  buildings  of  rough  ungainly  architecture, 
the  machine  shops  with  their  distracting  whirr  and  buzz, 
the  foundries  with  their  huge  smoke  stacks  from  which  day 
and  night  leap  lurid  flames,  dense  smoke  and  gases  polluted 
with  every  kind  of  mineral  poison  which  both  worry  and  ex- 
haust with  their  noise,  dim  or  shut  out  the  light  and  either 
contaminate  or  keep  away  entirely  all  draughts  of  fresh 
air.  It  should  be  away  from  the  main  streets  and  thorough- 
fares of  the  business  sections  with  their  din  of  traffic,  the 
rattle  and  prattle  of  horse  and  wheel,  the  clang  of  bell  and 
the  ceaseless  patter  of  hurrying  feet,  together  with  the  gen- 
eral but  ever  present  danger  to  life  and  limb  to  be  found  in 


The  School  105 

these  sections  both  for  young  and  old,  but  especially  for  the 
young  and  unwary.  It  must  also  be  away  from  the  unsightly 
houses  and  buildings  of  the  poor  sections  and  the  rickety  and 
dilapidated  houses  of  the  redlight  districts  with  unhealthy 
congestion  and  open  and  unrestrained  immorality  and  deg- 
radation. The  importance  of  keeping  the  school  in  the 
more  beautiful,  sanitary  and  wholesome  sections  is  obvious. 
The  dwellers  in  and  frequenters  of  the  redlight  districts  are 
not  accustomed  to  show  consideration  in  modesty  to  those 
older  people  who  know  the  nature  and  purpose  of  their  acts 
and  will  resent  it  by  appealing  to  the  law,  much  less  are  they 
disposed  to  consider  children  in  the  mere  passing.  And  yet 
these  children  do  not  know  the  import  of  things  seen  and 
heard  while  passing  and  will  take  on  pollution  unwittingly  as 
if  it  were  the  best  in  our  civilization.  The  school  needs  the 
aid  of  all  good  forces  in  society  to  attain  its  best  results 
and  certainly  whatever  of  aid  can  be  given  in  environment 
should  be  seriously  considered  and  eagerly  sought  in  lo- 
cating a  school. 

Along  with  environment  of  the  school  come  the  subjects 
of  the  size  of  the  grounds  and  their  arrangement.  The  size 
of  the  plot  of  ground  from  the  theoretical  viewpoint  is  de- 
termined by  the  number  of  students  the  school  is  intended  to 
accommodate.  From  the  practical  side  the  question  of 
economy  plays  a  prominent  part  especially  in  city  schools 
where  ground  is  rented,  leased  or  sold  at  so  much  per  square 
foot.  There  is  much  difference  to  authorities  limited  in 
finances  between  ground  that  cost  oftentimes  hundreds  of 
dollars  per  square  foot  and  land  which  costs  less  than  a 
hundred  dollars  an  acre  —  a  fact  that  is  oftentimes  a  mat- 
ter of  serious  consideration.  At  present,  however,  under 
the  stress  of  a  demand  for  physical  education  a  play  ground 
allowing  ample  room  for  healthy  exercise  is  of  paramount 
consideration.  This  it  is  a  pleasure  to  say  is  generally 
appreciated  and  grounds  are  provided  everywhere  though 
sometimes  at  great  financial  cost  to  the  taxpayers.  In  Ger- 
many a  square  meter  of  playing  room  is  considered  necessary 
for  each  child.  In  America  the  norm  is  placed  by 
most  authorities  at  about  thirty  square  feet  of  playing  space 


106  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

per  child.  At  this  rate  a  school  in  order  to  accommodate 
five  hundred  pupils  at  play  would  require  play  ground  space 
about  the  size  of  a  quarter  of  a  city  block  or  a  space  about 
the  size  of  six  city  lots.  Other  schools  would  require  play 
grounds  in  corresponding  proportions  as  they  were  intended 
to  accommodate  less  or  more  pupils.  However,  such  other 
conditions  as  the  means  on  hand  and  the  ground  in  the 
particular  locality  available  for  such  purposes  would  enter 
as  incidental  factors  to  determine  the  size  of  play  grounds 
furnished  any  school.  Besides  for  esthetic  reasons  wherever 
and  whenever  possible  the  grounds  should  be  large  enough  to 
admit  of  beautifying.  In  such  cases  it  could  hardly  be  deemed 
advisable  to  sacrifice  space  really  needed  for  child  activity  for 
giving  mere  beauty  to  grounds.  In  beautifying  grasses, 
flowers  and  shrubbery  artistically  arranged  with  shade  trees 
set  out  in  corresponding  symmetry  and  all  well  set  off  with 
settees  and  swings  may  be  found  sufficient  to  produce  the 
desired  esthetic  effect.  Where  possible  fences  surrounding 
the  premises  might  be  of  hedge  instead  of  being  of  the 
ordinary  iron,  rail  or  pale  fence.  None  of  these  esthetic 
ends  are  however  of  sufficient  value  to  warrant  their  being 
sought  at  the  sacrifice  of  adequate  play  ground  space. 
Though  unjustifiable  in  the  nature  of  things,  if  either  sex 
should  be  forced  to  sacrifice  either  ornamentation  or  play- 
grounds the  present  social  sentiment  would  give  the  boys 
the  playground  and  the  girls  the  ornamented  grounds.  Inas- 
much as  sunlight  is  desirable  as  well  as  exercise  and  pure 
air,  all  playgrounds  should  where  possible  be  on  the  sunny 
side  of  the  building  and  have  the  benefit  of  whatever  protec- 
tion is  available  from  the  chilly  winds  and  be  equipped  with 
buildings  for  shelter  during  storms  and  bad  weather.  Trees 
when  present  should  be  if  possible  of  the  evergreen  variety  in 
order  to  soften  the  otherwise  barrenness  of  the  cold  and 
bleak  winter  days.  These  besides  being  systematically  ar- 
ranged should  be  far  enough  away  from  the  building  in  order 
not  to  be  light  obstructing  by  casting  their  darkening 
shadows  through  the  windows  of  the  school  room  during  the 
regular  school  periods.  Should  there  be  both  the  evergreen 
and  deciduous   trees   the  deciduous  trees   should  be  placed 


The  School  107 

near  the  building  so  that  in  the  winter  when  they  cast  their 
longest  shadows  they  will  be  devoid  of  leaves  to  offer  ob- 
struction to  the  entrance  of  light  through  the  windows. 
For  drainage  cleanliness  and  healthful  activity  grounds  cov- 
ered with  natural  sand  and  medium  sized  gravel  have  been 
found  to  give  the  best  results.  Boarded  floors,  asphalt, 
macadam,  cement  or  other  hard  composition  floors,  besides 
being  more  or  less  slippery  and  dangerous  in  case  of  any 
form  of  violent  activity  are  unyielding  and  painful  by  the 
resistance  they  offer  and  the  consequent  jars  they  cause  to 
the  joints  of  the  body  in  the  springing  and  jumping  in  which 
all  children  are  wont  to  indulge  at  play.  For  moral  pur- 
poses and  sex  hygiene  as  well  as  good  manners  all  play- 
grounds however  small  should  be  separate  for  boys  and  girls 
and  should  have  separate  entrances. 

Its  Construction  and  Equipment.  The  school  as  here  used 
we  have  said  would  be  either  a  room  or  group  of  rooms.  But 
if  it  should  happen  to  be  the  latter  both  experience  and  ex- 
periment have  shown  that  it  should  be  the  rooms  put  together 
to  make  the  building  and  not  the  building  made  into  the 
rooms  if  in  the  structure  the  best  ends  are  to  be  conserved 
for  the  general  health  of  the  pupils  and  the  quality  and  ef- 
ficiency of  the  work.  The  best  shape  for  room  or  building 
is  a  rectangle,  with  the  second  choice  for  a  square  building. 
The  average  life  of  a  school  building  is  about  a  generation 
and  a  half:  while  many  of  them  do  duty  for  several  genera- 
tions and  there  are  some  few  over  two  hundred  years  old  and 
still  in  service.  From  the  length  of  service  demanded  of  a 
Sdhool  building  and  the  part  it  plays  in  the  life  and  health 
of  those  who  attend  it  —  both  pupil  and  teacher  —  a  school 
building  should  be  of  the  very  best  material  and  should 
represent  the  best  skill  and  workmanship  obtainable  and 
should  as  nearly  as  is  practical  under  local  conditions  be  of 
brick,  stone  or  concrete.  Brick,  stone  and  concrete  struc- 
tures have  the  advantage  of  being  more  endurable,  warmer 
in  winter  and  cooler  in  summer,  offer  less  danger  in  the  case 
of  fire  than  wooden  buildings.  In  order  to  reduce  the  dis- 
turbances of  the  school  and  to  gain  order  and  quietude  from 
the  outside,  the  building  should  be  as  far  back  from  the  street 


108  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

as  is  possible  without  cutting  off  the  supply  of  light  and 
air,  by  its  resulting  enforced  proximity  to  adjoining  build- 
ings. In  order  to  overcome  noise  from  the  street  produced 
by  the  passing  wagon  and  horse,  substances,  that  tend  to 
deaden  sound,  such  as  sawdust  and  other  forms  of  wood 
pulp  and  sand  may  be  spread  on  the  street  pavement  im- 
mediately surrounding  the  school.  For  continued  use  the 
best  results  will  be  found  to  obtain  when  this  surface  cover- 
ing is  either  sprinkled  with  water  or  oiled  frequently.  If 
the  school  must  be  near  other  buildings  they  should  be  suf- 
ficiently far  off  to  admit  of  a  maximum  amount  of  light. 
The  ideal  condition  is  the  one  where  a  line  drawn  from  the 
base  of  the  school  building  to  the  top  of  the  neighboring 
building  makes  an  angle  with  the  earth's  surface  of  between 
twenty-five  and  forty  degrees,  the  nearer  the  angle  is  to 
twenty-five  degrees  the  better.  Light  as  we  can  all  tell  by 
our  bodily  feeling  on  sunshiny  and  cloudy  days,  is  not  only 
good  for  the  eyes  but  is  also  a  powerful  motor  for  dispelling 
gloom  from  the  soul  and  inducing  good  cheer  and  happiness. 
This  power  is  possessed  particularly  by  rays  from  the  sun 
that  fall  directly  upon  the  subject.  Modern  bacteriology 
has  proved  that  the  sun  is  a  powerful  disinfectant  —  na- 
ture's physician  —  and  offers  a  serious  check  to  the  breeding 
of  infectious  germs  and  the  spread  of  infectious  diseases. 

The  consensus  of  opinion  is  that  buildings  should  not  be 
more  than  two  stories  high.  In  such  buildings  the  minimum 
of  fatigue  in  climbing  stairs  prevails  and  the  minimum  danger 
to  injury  in  case  of  fire  exists,  with  a  maximum  seating  and 
recitation  capacity.  The  strain  in  climbing  stairs  is  not 
noticeable  in  the  ordinary  graded  school,  but  where  there 
is  departmental  work  and  every  thirty  to  forty-five  minutes 
for  four,  five  and  even  six  hours  pupils  must  pace  up  and 
down  long  flights  of  stairs,  the  strain  is  sufficiently  taxing 
to  tell  on  the  energy  of  even  the  stronger  pupils  and  thereby 
materially  affect  the  quality  of  mental  work  done.  When  it 
comes  to  the  dangers  from  fire  the  question  is  one  of  even 
more  seriousness  and  fraught  with  immediate  danger  to  life 
and  limb.  For  many  reasons  given  above  and  others  equally 
weighty  entranceways  to  all  school  buildings  should  be  as 


The  School  109 

numerous  as  possible  and  as  wide  as  possible  with  risers  be- 
tween five  and  a  half  and  six  and  a  half  inches  high  and  treads 
from  ten  to  twelve  inches  wide.  Stairways  also  will  meet 
both  normal  and  emergency  conditions  best  if  they  are  num- 
erous. Under  no  conditions  should  there  be  less  than  two 
and  these  should  be  at  the  ends  of  the  buildings  and  never  in 
the  center.  For  rapid  exit  doors  should  be  from  three  to 
four  feet  wide  and  all  rooms  should  open  into  two  or  more 
corridors  from  ten  to  sixteen  inches  wide.  Fire-drill  should 
be  constantly  practiced  under  compulsion  of  statutory  law, 
so  that  order  and  self  control  may  prevail.  When  these  have 
reached  such  precision  that  the  school  building  can  be  emptied 
in  three  minutes  or  less,  the  dangers  from  fire  and  panic  in 
schools  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  signals  for  fire 
should  be  distinct  and  easily  intelligible  to  teachers  and  pupils 
alike. 

For  the  purpose  of  light,  health  and  cheerfulness  of  the 
school,  the  walls  should  be  white,  the  ceilings  high  and  con- 
cave and  painted  not  plastered.  All  ledges,  cornices,  corners 
and  other  places  where  dust  might  collect  should  be  avoided. 
Wainscoting  where  present  is  best  either  glazed  or  of  a 
highly  polished  surface.  Cloak  rooms  for  reasons  chiefly 
sanitary  should  be  large  enough  to  accommodate  all  wraps 
without  crowding  them  together.  They  should  also  for 
similar  reasons  be  well  heated,  well  lighted  and  ventilated 
thereby  reducing  the  possibilities  of  the  spread  of  various 
contagions  to  a  minimum.  All  schools  need  basements  and 
wherever  funds  will  permit  authorities  should  be  persuaded 
to  provide  them.  But  many  dangers  may  lurk  in  basements 
unless  the  proper  precautions  are  taken  in  their  construction. 
Every  possible  precaution  known  to  science  should  be  taken 
to  insure  that  they  shall  be  dry  and  well  lighted  and  venti- 
lated. The  walls  of  cellars  and  buildings  should  be  im- 
pervious to  water,  especially  if  the  subsoil  carries  ground 
water.  A  good  wall  that  will  insure  a  dry  basement  may  be 
made  out  of  asphalt  laid  between  a  brick  or  stone  wall  and 
tar  on  the  outside  with  a  floor  of  cement.  Basements  are  a 
prominent  utility  for  a  school  and  if  properly  built  may  be- 
come a  healthy  place  for  play  in  inclement  weather,  but  if 


110  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

unhealthy  it  may  and  generally  does  become  a  serious  danger 
to  the  health  of  the  pupils.  Its  practical  utility  is  chiefly 
as  a  place  for  the  furnaces  and  air  passages  for  ventilation, 
coal-storage  and  as  a  place  for  the  location  of  toilets,  lava- 
tories and  baths,  where  such  is  furnished,  and  for  a  swimming 
pool.  However,  swimming  pools  are  luxuries  comparatively 
few  schools  can  afford,  but  which  are  more  common  in  the 
schools  of  the  larger  cities  of  England  and  Continental  Eu- 
rope. 

Its  Equipment.  The  equipment  of  the  school  should  be 
simple,  healthful,  cheerful  and  practical.  It  may  vary  from 
a  single  array  of  desks  seats,  recitation  benches,  teachers 
desk,  chairs  and  window  shades,  to  a  room  with  painted  walls, 
highly  colored  wall  maps,  globes,  pictures,  library  tables, 
blackboards,  drawing  and  music  charts  and  other  objects 
for  decoration,  and  plants  for  ornamentation  or  nature 
study,  or  both.  A  school  overcrowded  with  equipment  be- 
sides being  deleterious  to  the  health  of  the  pupils  through 
the  opportunities  the  objects  offer  for  the  collection  of  dust 
with  its  tendency  to  support  infectious  germs,  entails  much 
work  upon  the  teacher  or  janitor  to  keep  them  in  order. 
Out  of  order  they  are  a  severe  strain  to  highstrung  nervous 
temperament  accustomed  to  tidy  and  orderly  homes  and  in 
this  way  as  a  result  tend  to  have  a  demoralizing  effect  upon 
the  school,  it  being  claimed  and  generally  conceded  that  the 
work  of  a  school  will  more  than  likely  take  on  the  same  gen- 
eral tone  as  is  afforded  by  the  physical  environment  of  the 
pupil.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  equipment  should  be  reduced  to 
a  minimum  for  maximum  efficiency  in  teaching  and  maximum 
effect  in  decoration  without  becoming  a  source  of  strain 
and  worry  or  demoralization  upon  pupils  and  teacher.  A 
few  educational  instruments  practical  and  in  good  working 
order  with  a  potted  plant  or  two  to  break  the  monotony  of 
the  view  and  bring  cheer  and  happiness,  and  a  lively  progres- 
sive teacher  have  been  found  to  be  about  the  best  equipment 
for  a  successful  school.  The  rather  recent  arousal  of  senti- 
ment for  and  interest  in  physical  education  has  stirred  edu- 
cators to  an  investigation  of  the  effects  of  the  school  life  and 
surroundings  upon  the  health  of  the  pupils.     This  investiga- 


The  School  111 

tion  has  led  to  a  wonderful  improvement  in  the  physical 
conditions  furnished  the  pupils  by  the  school.  Physiology 
and  hygiene  brought  to  light  many  glaring  defects  in  the 
methods  of  seating  pupils  and  the  direful  results  that  this 
works  upon  the  young  plastic  bodies  of  school  children.  It 
was  found  out  that  many  serious  deformities  possessed  by 
people  might  be  traced  directly  to  vicious  methods  in  the 
physical  habits  formed  by  the  school  many  of  which  were 
caused  by  the  school  equipment.  Many  of  these  were  found 
to  have  followed  individuals  throughout  life.  Investiga- 
tion showed  that  there  was  more  than  one  important  side 
to  the  problem.  Not  only  was  it  necessary  that  desks  be 
strong,  occupy  a  minimum  amount  of  space  for  service 
rendered,  but  for  the  physical  comfort  and  health  of  the 
pupil  as  well  as  for  his  working  efficiency  they  should  possess 
glazed  or  highly  polished  surfaces  with  as  few  crevices  for 
the  collection  of  dust  and  germs  as  possible.  They  should 
also  be  constructed  according  to  the  natural  form  of  the  body 
and  permit  the  maintaining  of  normal  postures  without  strain 
or  fatigue.  Like  school  buildings  the  school  equipment  is 
intended  to  last  for  a  long  time.  Very  often  it  is  made  to 
do  duty  for  several  generations.  It  is  necessary,  then,  that 
it  be  of  the  best  workmanship  and  material  and  also  of  the 
newest  model,  made  according  to  the  results  of  the  most  re- 
cent investigation  of  hygiene  and  physiology. 

The  subject  matter  of  desks,  seats,  and  order  and  methods 
of  seating  pupils  both  from  the  viewpoint  of  health,  economy 
of  time  in  school  work  and  working  efficiency  of  the  pupil, 
have  been  pretty  well  investigated  and  some  pretty  definite 
conclusions  reached  as  to  the  needs  of  schools  along  these 
particular  lines.  The  chief  physical  defects  created  by  desks 
that  are  faulty  in  pattern  or  ill-adapted  to  the  size  of  the 
pupil  and  the  general  shape  of  his  body  are  curvature  of  the 
spine,  bending  posture,  round  shoulders,  various  affections 
of  the  eyes,  impaired  action  of  the  lungs  and  viscera,  along 
with  repeated  instances  of  bowed  legs.  The  greatest  problem 
in  this  connection  has  been  to  have  desks  that  would  accom- 
modate properly  all  of  the  pupils  of  the  various  sizes.  Ex- 
aminations  conducted  by   competent   authorities   interested 


112  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

in  these  matters  showed  that  in  boys  six  years  of  age,  the 
difference  in  height  varied  as  much  as  six  and  a  half  inches ; 
at  eleven  this  disparity  in  difference  of  height  had  reached 
about  eight  and  a  half  inches  and  at  fifteen  it  had  risen  to 
eleven  and  a  third  inches.  These  relative  differences  would 
vary  slightly  in  the  different  localities  and  schools  and  in  the 
same  locality  and  schools  during  different  years,  because  it 
is  a  fact  of  commonplace  intelligence  that  scarcely  any  two 
children  grow  continually  at  the  same  rate,  nor  resultingly 
would  they  grow  the  same  amount  in  the  same  given  period 
of  a  year  or  school  term.  Besides  this  demand  for  desks  and 
seats  necessary  to  accommodate  pupils  of  various  sizes  and 
rate  of  growth  during  the  same  age  and  grade,  there  are 
exercises  that  are  conducted  on  the  tops  of  the  desks  them- 
selves which  require  that  in  order  that  they  may  be  properly 
adopted  to  the  various  positions  of  the  body  in  these  ex- 
ercises and  thereby  avoid  strain  on  the  body  and  that  the  ob- 
ject be  at  the  proper  distance  from  the  eye  and  may  rest  at 
the  proper  angle  of  vision  to  avoid  strain  and  the  counter- 
acting and  sometimes  harmful  effects  of  light  reflected  by 
polished  surfaces  about  the  room  at  various  angles.  The 
proper  distance  of  a  book  from  the  eye  is  said  to  be  about 
twelve  inches,  while  the  line  of  vision  should  be  at  right  angle 
to  the  angle  of  tilt  of  the  book  in  order  to  produce  the  least 
strain  and  fatigue  on  the  eyes  during  that  exercise.  Objects 
presented  to  the  eyes  for  any  length  of  time  too  far  away,  or 
too  near,  or  while  tilted  at  too  great  or  too  small  an  angle 
tend  to  produce  myopia,  hyperopia  and  various  other  afflic- 
tions of  the  eye.  It  used  to  be  contended  that  an  angle  of 
from  thirty  to  forty-five  degrees  was  the  proper  slope  of  the 
eyes,  and  for  mere  reading  this  is  probably  true.  But  experi- 
ment has  shown  that  at  this  angle  drawing  becomes  difficult, 
and  writing  with  ink  practically  impossible.  For  in  the  posi- 
tion of  the  pen  in  vertical  writing  ink  will  not  flow  at  so  great 
an  angle  of  slope,  at  least  ink  of  normal  thickness  will  not, 
while  all  objects  left  loose  on  the  desk  lid  when  it  is  tilted  at 
that  angle  even  though  they  be  relatively  heavy,  will  overcome 
the  surface  resistance  readily  and  if  left  alone  will  slide  off 
the  desklid  and  fall  to  the  floor.     Now  then,  having  found 


The  School  113 

the  relatively  perfect  condition  for  normal,  natural  bodily 
posture  and  movements,  how  to  get  a  desk  that  would  meet 
these  conditions  was  the  next  great  problem.  With  the  con- 
stant variation  in  height  and  growth  in  the  same  grade  in 
different  pupils  and  in  the  same  pupil  during  his  stay  in  the 
same  room  and  a  demand  for  desks  for  different  exercises 
during  the  various  recitation  periods  of  the  same  day  by 
the  same  group  of  pupils,  it  was  quite  evident  that  the  desk 
now  commonly  in  use  unadapted  to  a  variety  of  heights  and 
adjusted  to  no  variation  in  growth  and  set  at  one  angle, 
was  not  very  appropriate  for  the  task  which  these  conditions 
set  before  it.  An  economic  demand  soon  creates  its  own  sup- 
ply. Science  ever  responsive  to  the  offers  of  finance  soon 
responded  and  gave  us  an  adjustable  desk  that  in  many  ways 
accommodates  the  needs  specified  above  as  to  height,  growth 
and  angle  of  slope  for  the  top  of  the  desk  as  required  by  the 
various  exercises  of  the  school.  These  desks  are  not  perfect 
but  are  a  step  in  the  right  direction.  With  time  they  will 
no  doubt  be  improved  to  meet  more  nearly  the  demand  in  its 
entirety.  The  Heusinger  desk  at  present  seems  to  be  the 
best  on  the  market  for  these  conditions.  To  help  meet  these 
demands  for  adjustment  the  Heusinger  is  fitted  up  with  an 
adjustable  seat  that  accompanies  the  chair.  These  seats 
may  be  raised  and  lowered  at  will  so  as  to  permit  the  feet 
of  any  pupil  to  rest  squarely  on  the  floor.  They  may  be 
slid  toward  or  away  from  the  desk  lid.  They  are  fitted  also 
with  concave  backs,  curved  in  correspondence  to  the  natural 
curvature  of  the  spine,  with  a  chair  that  is  doubly  concave 
rising  in  the  middle  in  front  so  as  to  keep  the  thighs  level 
and  the  pelvic  girdle  or  seat  bone  in  a  healthy  normal  posi- 
tion. The  depth  of  concavity  of  the  chair  seat  should  be 
about  three-eighths  of  an  inch,  that  of  the  back  about  one 
and  a  half  inches.  The  curvature  in  the  back,  on  the  other 
hand,  should  be  about  three  fourths  of  an  inch.  The  seats 
themselves  should  also  not  be  too  narrow  nor  too  wide  as 
either  one  enforces  a  sitting  posture  that  is  harmful.  For 
matters  of  health,  discipline  and  a  high  working  efficiency  in 
the  pupil  all  such  desks  and  in  fact  all  desks  of  any  type 
should  be  single. 


114  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

Its  Ventilation  and  Warming.  If  we  are  to  accept  the 
data  of  previous  investigation  by  experiment  the  best  re- 
sults in  health  and  working  efficiency  will  obtain  in  the  school 
when  each  pupil  has  sufficient  warmth  and  fresh  air.  Care- 
ful calculation  has  shown  that  the  normal  pupil  can  be  rea- 
sonably well  supplied  with  fifteen  square  feet  of  floor  space 
and  200  cubic  feet  of  air  space.  A  school  fifteen  feet  wide, 
twenty-five  feet  in  length  and  thirteen  feet  in  height  will 
hold  as  its  maximum  capacity  for  ventilation  and  floor  space 
twenty-four  pupils.  With  only  twenty  pupils  the  same  size 
school  would  furnish  to  each  one  eighteen  and  seventy-five 
hundredths  square  feet  of  floor  space  and  two  hundred  and 
forty-three  and  seventy-five  hundredths  cubic  feet  of  air. 
While  this  is  a  general  demand,  the  more  fresh  air  per  pupil 
and  the  larger  amount  of  floor  space  a  school  furnishes,  the 
better  will  be  the  health  and  working  conditions  of  the  pupils. 
In  this  condition  many  states  have  laws  requiring  that  schools 
furnish  more  than  the  amount  specified  above.  The  laws 
of  Massachuetts  for  example  demand  30  cubic  feet  of  pure 
air  every  minute  according  to  which  it  would  require  a  com- 
plete change  of  air  every  eight  minutes  for  a  school  with 
twenty  pupils  or  a  complete  change  of  air  every  six  and 
nine-tenths  minutes  for  a  school  of  24  pupils.  It  is  to  be 
remembered  that  floor  space  and  fresh  air  are  very  essential 
prerequisites  for  health  and  work  in  routine  school  processes. 
In  primary  grades  plenty  of  floor  space  for  movements  and 
an  abundance  of  fresh  air  for  breathing  are  more  imperative 
than  later  in  the  grades,  because  here,  child  activity  is  great- 
est and  vital  functions  generally  more  intense.  Hence  any 
check  in  these  is  especially  to  be  avoided  as  the  surplus  energy 
created  by  air  and  room  for  movements  goes  into  growth 
and  development.  The  chief  cause  of  bad  posture  while 
sitting  is  fatigue  and  sometimes  exhaustion  brought  on  to 
a  great  extent  by  an  insufficient  amount  of  air  per  capita. 
The  habit  of  crowding  primary  grades  though  quite  common 
is  to  be  severely  condemned  as  a  vicious  practice.  The 
little  folks  above  all  others  should  have  the  maximum  amount 
of  air  space  for  breathing  per  capita.  The  problem  pre- 
sented here  is  really  the  one  as  to  how  the  air  in  a  school 


The  School  115 

may  be  changed.  For,  given  the  maximum  amount  of  floor 
space,  air  enclosed  in  a  room  unless  constantly  renewed  with 
fresh  draughts  becomes  polluted  and  unfit  for  use  even  though 
there  be  no  living  being  in  it  to  draw  off  the  oxygen  of  the  air 
and  charge  it  in  turn  with  carbonic  acid  gas  and  putrefying 
animal  matter.  Hence  in  all  of  this  the  problem  is  one  of 
procuring  constantly  fresh  air  and  removing  the  "  stale  " 
air  of  the  room.  In  schools  where  modern  scientific  methods 
and  instruments  are  in  use  there  are  twro  generally  accepted 
methods  of  accomplishing  this.  One  of  these  methods  be- 
cause of  its  dependence  upon  the  principle  of  gravity  is 
known  as  the  gravity  method.  .This  is  based  on  the  differ- 
ence of  the  specific  gravity  or  density  between  cold  air  and 
hot  air.  The  cold  air  being  more  dense  has  greater  molec- 
ular weight  for  a  given  amount  hence  is  heavier  than  a  like 
amount  of  warm  air  whose  specific  density  and  molecular 
weight  is  less,  and  as  a  result  of  this  where  cold  air  and  warm 
air  are  brought  together  the  warm  air  tends  to  and  will  actu- 
ally rise  while  the  heavier  cold  air  tends  to  and  will  actually 
fall.  Thus  where  heat  is  brought  into  a  school  room  there 
immediately  is  created  by  this  mechanical  process  a  motion 
of  air  particles  which  results  in  the  gradual  warming  of  all 
the  air  in  the  room,  the  warm  air  rising  in  the  process  and 
the  cold  air  falling  to  the  floor.  In  this  motion  of  air  me- 
chanically set  up  means  of  exit  of  the  air  being  properly 
provided,  the  air  generally  finds  its  way,  the  warm  air  is  ad- 
mitted on  one  side  up  near  the  ceiling  and  the  cold  air  is 
given  exit  somewhere  opposite  near  the  floor.  This  system  is 
at  its  best  for  service  in  still  cold  weather.  The  other  method 
is  a  mechanical  system  whereby  the  motion  of  the  air  is  con- 
trolled by  a  fan  and  forced  through  conduits  in  or  out  as 
the  temperature  desired  may  require.  The  fan  may  also 
exhaust  the  air  in  a  room  by  means  of  suction,  but  the  re- 
sults by  this  method  are  not  as  satisfactory  as  by  pressure. 
The  motion  of  the  air  should  be  slow  and  diagonally  across 
one  side  of  the  room.  It  should  enter  about  two  thirds  of 
the  way  up  the  side  of  the  wall  and  leave  at  a  distance  from 
the  floor  opposite  not  more  than  one  foot  above  it  if  the 
best  results  are  to  prevail.     In  a  room  with  a  ceiling  thir- 


116  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

teen  feet  from  the  floor  it  will  be  found  best  to  have  an  air 
passage  inward  about  nine  feet  up  the  wall.  The  air  should 
of  course  be  the  purest  obtainable  and  where  practicable 
it  would  furnish  the  best  results  if  its  humidity  were  guar- 
anteed by  its  being  drawn  in  over  a  constantly  moistened 
gauze  netting,  which  would  extract  from  the  air  all  dust  with 
its  possibility  of  contagion  bearing  germs  and  other  forms 
of  air  polluting  impurities.  Even  when  well  ventilated 
schools  are  unhealthy  and  the  students  sluggish  because  of 
the  air  being  too  warm.  From  sixty-eight  to  seventy  de- 
grees Fahrenheit  is  considered  a  good  lively  working  tempera- 
ture by  most  school  authorities.  However,  on  this  point 
there  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion,  while  also  the  heat- 
ing conditions  of  the  home  to  which  the  child  has  been  accus- 
tomed will  enter  in  each  particular  individual  and  class  of 
individuals  as  well  as  the  conditions  of  health,  feeding  and 
clothing,  to  determine  which  is  really  the  best  working  tem- 
perature for  a  child  and  for  a  school.  Many  eminent  au- 
thorities both  in  Europe  and  America  advocate  temperatures 
as  low  as  65  degrees  and  66  degrees  Fahrenheit  for  schools 
as  the  best  for  health  and  work.  Some  few  authorities  on 
the  other  hand  advocate  temperatures  for  comfort,  health, 
work,  as  high  as  72  degrees  to  75  degrees  Fahrenheit,  the 
difference  being  explained  by  the  personal  equation  element. 
Another  element  that  enters  to  determine  how  warm  air  shall 
be  is  its  humidity.  For  best  results  air  must  not  be  too  dry. 
It  must  have  a  certain  amount  of  moisture  and  if  it  is  not 
there  by  nature  it  must  be  supplied  by  artifice.  The  pres- 
ence or  absence  of  moisture  in  air  determines  its  effect  upon 
the  body  and  the  bodily  functions  to  quite  an  extent  as  all 
of  us  have  no  doubt  noticed  in  the  difference  of  penetration  in 
damp  cold  days  and  dry  cold  days  or  in  the  difference  in  effect 
between  damp  hot  (sultry)  days  and  dry  hot  days.  Cooks 
soon  learn  that  you  can  steam  a  thing  done  before  you  can 
merely  "  cook  "  it  done,  the  difference  being  due  to  the  pres- 
ence or  absence  of  moisture  in  the  air.  The  air  we  breathe 
in  "  dry  "  weather  possesses  generally  between  50%  and 
75%  of  humidity.  During  "wet"  weather  it  may  range 
in  humidity  up  to  one  hundred  percent,  which  is  the  point 


The  School  117 

of  saturation,  beyond  which  point  the  moisture  descends  as 
rain  or  snow.  The  air  of  a  school  room  unaided  mechanic- 
ally will  possess  between  30%  and  45%  of  humidity  and 
may  at  times  fall  as  low  as  25%  or  even  20%.  This  differ- 
ence in  amount  of  humidity  between  the  air  of  the  school 
room  and  that  of  the  open  air  makes  imperative  the  need 
of  adding  to  the  humidity  of  the  school  room  by  various 
mechanical  devices.  This  may  be  done  by  the  simple  method 
of  keeping  earthen  jars  of  water  in  appropriate  warm  places. 
Dry  air  has  been  found  to  be  favorable  to  taking  coughs  and 
colds  and  various  forms  of  throat  affections  and  bronchial 
troubles,  the  nightmare  of  singers  and  public  speakers. 
Teachers  grown  old  in  the  cause  find  the  first  signs  of  age 
and  wearing  down  generally  in  failing  voice  such  as  a  "  rat- 
tling "  in  the  throat  and  coughs  brought  on  by  the  constant 
inhaling  of  the  dry  air  of  the  school  room.  Besides  this, 
air  robbed  of  its  humidity  enervates  and  when  very  dry 
absorbs  moisture  from  the  pores  of  the  skin  and  various  ex- 
posed and  accessible  membranes  of  the  body,  causing  irrita- 
tion and  inflammation  to  delicate  surfaces  and  dryness  and 
roughness  to  the  more  hardened  surfaces  of  the  body.  For 
heating  purposes  the  need  of  storm  doors  for  the  entrances 
to  all  buildings  is  obvious.  They  not  only  offer  double  pro- 
tection but  they  prevent  drafts  and  make  the  heat  of  the 
building  more  uniform. 

The  means  employed  for  heating  schools  are  generally 
hot  air,  hot  water,  vapor  and  steam.  Coal  stoves  are  used 
in  the  less  modern  and  less  well  equipped  schools.  Each  has 
its  advantage,  hot  air,  hot  water  and  steam  are  all  popular 
now.  Those  heating  systems  that  are  fitted  with  self  adjust- 
ing machinery  are,  of  course,  the  best.  Stoves,  where  in 
use,  will  be  found  to  give  the  greatest  satisfaction  in  a  gen- 
eral way  when  they  are  located  in  a  corner  of  the  room  and 
near  the  chimney.  Their  naturally  small  radiating  surface 
often  requires  supplementing  by  additional  means.  The 
chief  objection  to  stoves  is  that  they  require  too  much  atten- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  that  their  heat  is  too  vary- 
ing and  the  burning  fuel  pollutes  the  air.  It  is  difficult  to 
place  a  stove  so  as  to  give  perfect  heat  satisfaction.     In 


118  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

real  cold  weather  as  in  mild  weather  those  near  the  stove  are 
over-heated  and  suffer  oftentimes  physically  and  always 
in  their  working  efficiency,  while  those  farther  away  never  get 
enough  warmth  and  suffer  correspondingly  in  health  and 
working  efficiency.  Steam  and  hot  water  seem  to  offer  least 
objections  to  health  and  working  efficiency  of  all  the  methods 
of  heating.  They  are  both  economical.  Steam  requires 
smaller  radiators  and  is  more  easily  regulated.  Hot  water 
seems  to  be  more  economical  in  material,  but  on  the  other 
hand  requires  more  apparatus  to  furnish  a  greater  radiat- 
ing surface.  Returning  to  stoves,  stove  heat  is  always  dry 
heat  whose  harmful  tendencies  and  means  of  overcoming 
them  by  giving  to  it  the  proper  amount  of  humidity  we  have 
already  mentioned.  The  cleaning  of  the  stove  and  caring 
for  the  fire  produces  much  dust  however  careful  one  may  be. 
This  dust  .from  the  stove  combined  with  the  dust  from  shoes, 
clothes  and  cra}Ton  in  board  work  surcharges  the  air,  which 
becomes  laden  with  decayed  animal  matter,  carbonic  acid 
gas  and  other  cutaneous  excretions  breathed  from  the  lungs 
and  thrown  off  from  the  bodies  of  the  pupils  and  other  for- 
eign bodies  present,  thereby  keeping  the  air  of  the  room  con- 
stantly polluted  if  not  actually  poisoned  with  contagious 
germs.  If  gas  jets  are  present  they  will  add  to  these  animal 
poisons  mineral  poisons  such  as  nitrous,  carbonic,  ammoniac 
and  sulphurous  gases.  To  offset  and  overcome  these  gases 
dust  laden  and  germ  bearing  air  ventilation  must  be  con- 
stantly looked  after,  as  must  be  the  system  and  apparatus 
for  ventilation  and  the  whole  kept  always  in  perfect  trim  in 
order  that  this  poisoned  and  poisoning  air  be  constantly  and 
fully  removed. 

Its  Lighting.  Much  was  said  about  lighting  schools  un- 
der the  discussions  of  the  grounds  and  environment.  How- 
ever some  things  more  peculiar  to  the  subject  matter  of  light- 
ing schools  omitted  there  will  be  mentioned  here.  To  begin 
with  the  problem  of  lighting  is  a  vital  problem  both  to  eyes 
and  body  and  consequently  to  the  kind  and  amount  of  ef- 
fective work  done  in  the  school.  Light  is  a  subtle  phe- 
nomenon and  its  measurment  is  difficult  and  complicated  be- 
sides requiring  very  delicate  if  not  indeed  costly  apparatus. 


The  School  119 

Again  light  measurements  are  too  often  entrusted  to 
practical  judgments  which  because  of  the  nature  of  the 
problem  make  them  untrustworthy.  Where  the  light  is  un- 
obstructed by  objects  near  windows  on  clear  days  it  is  very 
easy  to  light  most  rooms  sufficiently.  It  is  on  dark  and 
rainy  days  or  in  the  early  morning  hours  and  late  in  the 
afternoon  of  the  short  winter  days  that  the  amount  of  light 
available  in  the  darkest  parts  of  the  room  requires  aug- 
mentation and  additional  artificial  or  natural  increase. 
Here  the  eyes  should  not  be  trusted.  The  amount  of  trans- 
parent glass  surface  advocated  by  specialists  in  this  sub- 
ject is  from  25%  to  16%  of  the  floor  space  on  a  general 
average.  On  clear  days  glass  surface  of  12%  of  the  floor 
space  would  do,  while  on  dark  dreary  days  25%  is  hardly 
sufficient  to  furnish  the  required  light.  The  amount  of  light 
actually  furnished  and  consequently  the  amount  of  glass  sur- 
face necessary  will  vary  in  northern  and  southern  exposures, 
and  eastern  and  western  exposures,  being  greater  in  northern 
and  eastern  exposures  than  in  southern  and  western  expos- 
ures. According  to  the  figures  given  above  the  amount  of 
glass  surface  required  to  furnish  the  requisite  amount  of 
light  for  a  room  4?0  x  25  feet  would  average  from  160  to  250 
feet.  On  dark  days  the  amount  of  light  required  by  a  child 
with  eyes  of  normal  strength  is  said  by  one  authority,  Cohn, 
to  be  about  fifty  candle  power  (fifty  standard  candles  burnt 
at  the  distance  of  one  meter  from  the  eye).  Where  the  light 
available  under  natural  diffusion  is  insufficient  additional 
light  may  be  procured  by  artificially  gathering  it  on  sur- 
faces and  reflecting  it  therefrom  into  those  parts  where 
and  when  desired.  For  this  purpose  glass  plates  ribbed 
after  the  pattern  of  the  Luxfer  prism  may  be  used  to  the 
best  advantage.  When  arranged  in  the  sash  or  outside  this 
ribbed  glass  or  Luxfer  prism  can  gather  light  from  the  win- 
dows or  other  sources  of  exposure,  refract  it  and  by  cast- 
ing it  upon  proper  receiving  plates  reflect  it  into  the  insuf- 
ficiently lighted  portions  of  the  room. 

The  light  itself,  it  is  agreed,  is  most  satisfactory  when 
entering  from  the  left.  Light  from  the  front  is  straining 
on  the  eyes,  besides  throwing  shadows  on  the  work  on  the 


120  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

desk.  From  the  rear  the  body  casts  shadows  on  the  work, 
thereby  causing  strain  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  and  is  also 
a  serious  source  of  danger  to  the  teacher's  eyes,  as  it  forms 
a  constant  glare  to  her  front  view.  If  more  powerful  than 
light  from  the  left  it  is  doubly  objectionable.  The  light 
from  the  left  is  most  free  from  any  of  these  objections. 
Windows  if  located  on  an  objectionable  side  of  the  room 
may  have  their  harmful  effects  successfully  counteracted  by 
being  eight  or  ten  feet  up  from  the  floor,  care  being  exer- 
cised to  have  the  light  thus  obtained  weaker  than  light  from 
the  left.  The  windows  themselves,  it  is  agreed,  in  order  to 
be  most  favorable  to  light  should  be  as  near  together  as  pos- 
sible, extend  as  near  to  the  ceiling  as  possible  (within  six 
inches),  the  light  being  reflected  from  the  ceiling  but  absorbed 
by  the  floor,  desks  and  furnishings.  The  higher  the  sources 
of  light,  the  greater  the  lighting  effect,  a  fact  which  offers 
serious  objections  to  arched  windows.  Window  sills  should 
in  general  be  on  a  level  with  the  eye.  Some  authorities  ad- 
vocate five  feet,  some  four  and  some  as  low  as  three  and  a 
half  feet,  the  aim  being  to  avoid  the  light  from  the  lower 
part  of  the  window  producing  reflections  from  the  tops  of 
the  desks  or  being  on  the  eye  line  when  the  pupils  are  seated. 
This  aim  would  probably  explain  partly  the  differences  in 
height  advocated  by  various  authorities.  For  primary 
grades  the  desks  would  be  lower  and  the  eye  line  correspond- 
ingly lower,  while  the  desks  would  be  higher  as  we  pass  from 
the  lower  to  the  higher  grades  and  the  eye  line  would  rise 
accordingly.  Hence,  it  is  clear  that  window  sills  of  rooms 
are  to  a  great  extent  determined  by  the  height  of  the  pupils 
the  room  is  intended  to  accommodate.  If  the  demand  for 
sufficient  light  on  dark  days  is  fully  met,  the  light  becomes 
too  intense  on  bright,  clear,  sunshiny  days,  especially  for 
those  pupils  near  the  windows.  This  inconvenience,  how- 
ever, may  be  overcome  by  the  use  of  proper  colored  window 
shades  adjusted  to  unfold  and  roll  up  from  the  proper  place 
of  attachment,  the  window  sill.  The  windows,  from  what 
has  been  said  above,  should  be  toward  the  rear  and  left  side 
of  the  room  to  admit  light  over  the  shoulders  and  from  the 
left.     The  walls  and  their  color  play  a  prominent  part  in 


The  School  121 

the  light  effects  of  a  room.  To  produce  the  best  effects  in 
color  blend,  the  walls  of  the  room  should  be  of  a  greenish 
gray,  the  ceiling  white  and  the  window  shades  a  tint  but 
slightly  darker  than  the  walls.  Tests  have  shown  that  this 
combination  is  the  least  objectionable  of  the  colors  of  the 
spectrum  from  a  general  standpoint,  inasmuch  as  the  colors 
of  the  spectrum  produce  some  violent  nervous  reaction  wholly 
out  of  proportion  to  their  capacity  for  absorbing  light. 
This  is  the  case  with  yellow  which  though  it  absorbs  a  min- 
imum amount  of  light  is  fatiguing  and  induces  to  a  marked 
degree  nervousness  and  irritability.  All  walls  in  a  school 
room  should  be  painted  instead  of  white  washed,  but  not 
polished  or  glossed,  because  they  then  become  dangerous 
reflectors  of  light. 

Its  Sanitation.  A  few  words  might  be  added  here  about 
the  general  sanitation  of  the  school.  To  begin  with  health 
is  preserved  only  by  the  utmost  care  and  watchfulness.  In 
the  case  of  children  this  care  and  watchfulness  must  be  fur- 
nished for  them  chiefly  by  the  school  and  the  home.  Both 
teacher  and  parents  should  know  the  symptoms  of  the  vari- 
ous children's  diseases  and  the  physical  signs  of  the  changes 
due  to  mere  growth  and  development.  Health  and  exercise 
go  hand  in  hand  as  do  health  and  wholesome  conditions  of 
rest  and  labor.  "  Cleanliness  is  next  to  godliness."  Not 
only  must  the  decaying  matter  and  residue  from  eating  be 
removed  from  the  teeth,  but  the  hair  must  be  kept  clean 
and  skin  and  nails  also.  Many  contagious  diseases  are 
spread  by  the  scales  of  the  skin  which  the  body  throws  off 
in  its  normal  processes  of  waste  and  repair  in  growth.  The 
nails  in  particular  offer  fit  collecting  places  for  all  kinds  of 
germs  and  many  a  case  of  serious  even  fatal  blood  poisoning 
has  been  started  by  scratching  or  picking  an  injured  and 
perhaps  itching  part  of  the  body  with  the  finger  nails,  thus 
infecting  it.  Dust  and  disease  are  twin  sisters.  Where 
there  is  one  the  other  may  be  expected  to  be  also.  Where 
through  any  cause  a  contagious  disease  breaks  out  there 
should  be  at  once  isolation,  a  physician  called  and  the  parents 
notified.  Of  the  contagious  diseases  common  to  children  and 
schools,  diphtheria,  scarlet  fever,  measles,  whooping  cough, 


122  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

mumps  and  chicken  pox  are  the  most  common  and  most 
dangerous.  Chorea  is  common  in  some  schools.  It  is  a 
nervous  affection  and  its  presence  is  made  manifest  by  the 
twitching  of  the  hand,  fingers  or  eyes  and  a  general  lack  of 
muscular  control  especially  in  walking.  The  symptoms  of 
these  diseases  together  with  other  common  forms  of  chil- 
dren's complaints  should  be  familiarly  known  to  all  teachers 
and  the  fact  remembered  that  infection  long  after  the  cure 
of  the  patient  is  apparently  accomplished,  and  therefore, 
by  oversight  or  neglect  of  the  proper  steps  of  isolation  a  new 
epidemic  may  break  out.  This  may  be  brought  on  if  the 
convalescing  child  or  his  clothes  is  allowed  to  come  into  con- 
tact with  other  pupils.  Contagions  may  be  started  by 
breathing  polluted  air  from  the  lungs  or  thrown  off  by  other 
parts  of  the  body  under  diseased  conditions.  To  promote 
fully  the  general  health  of  students  and  pupils  the  utmost 
cleanliness  must  be  observed.  The  buildings  should  be 
swept  daily  and  the  rooms  and  furnishings  cleaned  thor- 
oughly. If  books  or  pencils  are  used  in  common  they  should 
be  disinfected  each  time  before  redistribution  for  use  or  over 
night  after  use.  This  is  especially  desirable  in  cases  of 
contagion  or  known  exposures.  For  this  purpose  commer- 
cial formalin  sprayed  in  enclosures  for  books,  if  air  tight, 
in  the  proportion  of  one  unit  (c.c.)  of  formalin  to  300  units 
(c.c.)  of  air  space  makes  a  good  disinfectant.  The  sources 
of  water  supply  should  be  kept  pure  and  the  students  should 
be  encouraged,  if  not  compelled,  to  use  separate  drinking 
cups.  Where  this  cannot  be  controlled  the  drinking  cups 
if  possible  should  be  left  in  running  water.  Many  cases  of 
consumption,  bronchial  troubles,  throat  affections  and  ca- 
tarrh are  contracted  by  pupils  and  persons  drinking  from 
cups  where  the  germs  have  clung  from  the  lips  of  infected 
persons.  Water  standing  even  though  provided  with  mov- 
able lids  is  to  be  avoided  for  fear  of  contagion.  Barrels  or 
kegs  with  faucets  are  much  to  be  preferred.  In  many  mod- 
ern schools  contagion  is  to  be  avoided  by  drinking  fountains. 
But  while  the  one  danger  of  contagion  is  probably  overcome, 
another  perhaps  equally  great  danger  is  risked.  For  drink- 
ing fountains  deny  the  opportunity  of  examining  the  water 


The  School  123 

that  is  being  drunk  which  for  all  one  may  know  contains  other 
germs  and  bacilli  equally  dangerous  as  well  as  other  small 
animals  none  of  which  can  be  seen  and  their  intaking  into  the 
system  avoided,  as  well  as  their  deleterious  effects  from  the 
diseases  which  they  cause. 

Apart  from  the  water  and  its  dangers  another  set  of 
evils  beset  the  school  in  the  form  of  closets.  All  toilets, 
closets  and  urinals  are  breeding  places  of  disease  producing 
germs  and  air  polluting  gases.  They  should  therefore  be 
kept  clean  and  free  from  arising  odors  and  have  separate 
means  of  ventilation.  By  all  means  they  should  be  kept  dry 
and  well  lighted.  Toilets  automatically  cleaned  and  flooded 
are  the  best,  those  regularly  and  frequently  cleaned  are  not 
dangerous.  In  modern  times  various  forms  of  disinfectants 
and  deodorizers  are  much  in  use.  But  while  they  have  their 
value  they  generally  hide  many  dangers  most  of  which  they 
are  powerless  to  cure.  It  would  be  better  for  the  general 
health  of  pupils  and  teacher  if  instead  of  commercial  deodor- 
izers thorough  cleaning  should  be  more  frequently  resorted 
to.  These  points  to  health  are  simple  but  should  be  care- 
fully read  and  employed  wherever  possible  by  all  teachers  as 
precautions  and  preventatives.  They  will  easily  repay  their 
cost  in  money,  time  and  labor  by  their  contribution  in  health 
and  working  efficiency. 

Its  Purpose  in  the  Community.  From  what  has  already 
been  said  in  this  chapter  it  is  readily  seen  that  the  school 
besides  dispensing  knowledge  has  a  large  field  of  usefulness 
in  the  community.  Everything  connected  with  the  school 
should  be  orderly  and  well  regulated  both  as  to  grounds, 
building  and  school  exercises.  This  kind  of  a  lesson  is  of 
great  value  to  the  school  children  and  the  community.  Noth- 
ing should  be  allowed  to  go  forth  from  the  school  that  is 
not  of  good  qualit}',  wholesome  and  elevating.  Its  every 
form  and  place  should  be  in  and  of  itself  educative.  There 
should  be  public  gatherings  both  for  pupils  and  patrons 
created  and  offered  on  the  part  of  the  school  for  all  within 
its  reach.  Besides  this  the  school  is  often  and  rightly  so 
a  place  of  assemblage  for  promulgating  and  transacting 
community  business.     In  such  cases  the  teacher  should  see 


1£4>  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

to  it  that  the  commissioners  or  board  through  the  janitors 
have  the  grounds  and  building  well  cared  for,  properly  lighted 
and  cleaned  before  and  after  use.  The  teacher  himself  should 
see  to  it  that  the  building  in  such  cases  is  in  trim  order, 
bespeaking  cleanliness,  if  not  refinement  and  culture,  how- 
ever simple  the  furnishings,  and  then  he  should  insist  to  the 
proper  authorities  upon  its  being  kept  and  left  as  found. 
By  these  simple  acts  both  teacher  and  school  will  grow  in 
respect,  force  and  influence  in  the  community.  The  im- 
mediate purpose  of  the  school  in  a  community  is  to  educate 
for  service  and  to  render  service.  The  sum  total  capacity 
for  happiness  of  any  community  should  be  increased  by  the 
school.  The  desire  for  happiness  should  be  elevated  and 
purified.  The  health  of  many  living  and  working  together 
and  the  power  of  thinking  of  the  community  all  should  re- 
spond to  the  kindly  but  intelligent  touch  of  the  properly  or- 
ganized and  operated  school. 

REFERENCE  READING 

Bagley's  "The  Educative  Process."    Chap.  XXIII. 

Sharpless'  "  English  Education."     Appendix  3. 

Bolton's  "Principles  of  Education."     Chaps.  XI,  XII. 

Colgrave's  "The  Teacher  and  the  School."     Chap.  XIII. 

Johonnot's  "  Principles  and  Practice  of  Teaching."     Chap.  XI. 

Fitch's  "Lectures  on  Teaching."     Chap.  III. 

Baldwin's  "School  Management  and  School  Methods."       IV,  VI,  VII. 

Perry's  "The  Management  of  a  City  School."     Chap.  VI. 

Collar   &   Crook's   "  School   Management  and  Methods   of   Instruction." 

Chap.  II. 
Garlick's  "  A  New  Manual  of  Methods."    Chap.  I. 
Bailey  &  Burrage's  "  School  Sanitation  and  Decoration."     Chaps.  Ill, 

V,  VI,  X. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  SCHOOLROOM 

Its  Supervision  and  Control 

All  of  the  formal  educational  agencies  center  around 
the  schoolroom.  It  is  preeminently  the  school.  Here  it 
is  that  the  chief  functions  of  the  school  are  carried  on,  here 
the  problems  of  character  formation  and  knowledge  im- 
parting present  themselves  in  all  of  their  varieties  and  stub- 
bornness day  in  and  day  out,  month  in  and  month  out,  for  a 
solution  both  adequate  and  appropriate  for  the  demands  of 
this  particular  day  and  generation ;  here  all  of  the  forces  of 
formal  education  must  be  controlled,  diligently  directed  and 
unceasinghT  applied  upon  the  crude  working  material  as 
presented,  if  the  educational  ideal  of  the  country  is  to  be 
even  partly  realized.  The  classroom  is  the  ideal  unit  in  all 
educational  systems.  It  presents  every  form  and  phase  of 
problems  known  to  formal  education.  This  was  true  of  the 
schoolroom  even  in  its  early  history  when  education  as  for- 
mally outlined  and  conducted  was  a  luxury  afforded  only  by 
the  rich  and  the  school  consisted  of  a  few  or  even  a  single 
pupil  and  a  single  teacher.  With  us  to-day,  when  popular 
or  mass  education  is  the  order  of  the  day  and  the  school- 
room contains  anywhere  from  a  few  students  selected  for 
their  special  abilities  and  special  material  means  of  develop- 
ing these  abilities  to  nearly  a  hundred  miscellaneously  gath- 
ered and  with  various  capacities  for  taking  on  education 
either  in  the  groups  in  our  rural  schools  or  those  in  our 
highly  congested  urban  schools  the  problems  of  educa- 
tion as  known  to  the  ancients,  have  changed  but  little  in  form 
and  essence  except  perhaps  in  so  far  forth  as  to  become  in- 
finitely more  complicated  and  difficult  of  solution.  The 
question  of  the  size  of  the  schoolroom  and  the  number  of 

125 


126  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

pupils  and  grades  it  should  contain  has  always  been  a  prob- 
lem. Various  authorities  place  the  ideal  number  of  students 
for  work  and  supervision  at  from  twenty  to  thirty-five, 
twenty-three  being  accepted  by  a  majority  as  the  ideal  class. 
But  whatever  the  number  of  pupils,  conditions  of  congestion 
or  lack  of  funds  may  force  into  the  schoolroom,  its  problems 
arising  therefrom  must  be  met  and  solved,  if  the  educational 
work  devolving  upon  it  is  to  be  in  any  way  carried  on  suc- 
cessfully. The  real  problem  of  the  schoolroom  is  that  of 
time,  closely  followed  by  that  of  energy.  Both  must  be  used 
freely  and  yet  conserved  judiciously.  The  great  question 
in  school  economy  is  the  economy  of  time  and  energy.  So 
important  have  these  problems  been  realized  to  be  that  the 
"  National  Education  Association  "  has  had  a  sub-committee 
at  work  to  investigate  how  the  time  in  the  school  is  used  and 
how  economy  in  its  use  might  be  affected.  A  similar  investi- 
gation has  been  carried  on  by  the  present  U.  S.  Commissioner 
of  Education.1  From  both  of  these  sources  valuable  sug- 
gestions have  come,  which,  however,  cannot  be  embodied 
here.  How  therefore,  to  control  and  direct  the  activity 
of  all  of  the  pupils  in  a  schoolroom  in  such  a  way  as  to  get 
the  best  possible  results  in  imparting  knowledge  and  forming 
character  obtainable,  in  the  least  time  and  with  the  least 
expenditure  of  effort  in  pupil  and  teacher  is  the  paramount 
problem  of  the  schoolroom.  This  makes  two  things  in  school 
processes  necessary,  order  first  and  then  precision  in  all 
school  movements  and  exercises,  that  is,  economy  of  time  and 
energy  in  the  performance  of  all  school  duties. 

The  Supervision  of  the  Schoolroom.  Much  has  been  writ- 
ten in  treatises  on  school  economy  concerning  the  use  and 
direction  of  time  and  effort  in  school.  In  it  all  there  have 
been  a  variety  of  opinions,  but  all  agree  that  proper  super- 
vision of  the  school  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  the  primary 
requisite.  This  supervision  is  to  begin  at  the  beginning  of 
school  on  the  first  day  and  to  extend  throughout  that  day 
and  on  through  that  year  and  on  through  all  of  the  years 
of  the  entire  educational  process.  It  is  to  extend  from  the 
playground  to  the  recitation  seat.  It  is  to  be  less  direct  and 
i  See  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  1913,  Bulletin  No.  38. 


Tlte  Schoolroom  1£7 

special  as  age  and  experience  in  school  routine  and  school 
work  bring  power  of  self  direction,  of  control  and  of  individu- 
ality. That  is  to  say,  school  supervision  must  be  always 
and  everywhere  in  evidence  both  to  prohibit  and  inhibit, 
passing  from  the  former  to  the  latter  as  with  age  and  ex- 
perience self  direction  grows  upon  the  pupils.  The  teacher 
must  always  be  on  the  alert.  His  eyes  must  be  "  all  seeing  " 
and  his  ears  "  all  hearing."  From  the  first  hour  of  school 
every  pupil  should  be  taught  to  feel  that  the  teacher  can 
both  see  and  know  all  that  goes  on  in  a  room  and  even  much 
that  is  only  about  to  go  on  in  it.  He  must  be  able,  if  he 
would  control  all  situations,  to  detect  mischief  even  in  the 
making  and  to  tell  the  trend  of  conduct  almost  before  it 
actually  issues  into  conduct.  The  aim  of  supervision  in 
education  is  the  production  of  good  moral  character  and  in- 
tellectual activitiy.  If  it  fails  to  do  this  it  has  failed  in 
its  first  and  most  elementary  function.  According  as  it 
succeeds  or  fails  in  these  regards  school  government  is  either 
good  government  or  bad  government.  But  there  are  raanv 
reasons  why  school  governments  above  all  forms  of  govern- 
ment should  be  good  government.  To  begin  with  this  is  the 
first  contact  of  the  child  outside  of  the  home  with  tangible 
rules  and  regulations  arbitrarily  administered  by  unrelated 
agents.  If  here  he  is  allowed  to  learn  that  laws  are  lax  and 
their  enforcement  intermittent  and  uncertain  he  has  learned 
a  very  harmful  lesson,  one  that  may  turn  out  to  be  the  first 
lesson  in  the  disregard  for  and  transgression  of  law,  the 
first  step  perhaps  toward  the  jail,  the  penitentiary  and  even 
the  hangman's  post  or  electric  chair.  The  result  of  any  such 
failure  on  the  part  of  the  school,  is  especially  injurious  to  pu- 
pils being  prepared  for  citizenship  in  democratic  countries 
—  republics  where  the  meaning  and  force  of  law  and  the  re- 
sults of  their  breaking  need  be  so  well  impressed  upon  the 
growing  child  as  a  direct  and  important  part  of  the  prepara- 
tion for  the  assumption  of  the  coming  duties  of  good  citi- 
zenship. 

The  Nature  of  Supervision.  All  teachers  have  seen  cases 
of  successful  supervision  and  cases  of  unsuccessful  super- 
vision.    The  causes  of  the  success  or  failure  have  in  most 


128  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

cases  been  quite  evident.  We  have  said  that  a  teacher  must 
be  all  seeing  and  all  hearing.  This  by  no  means  makes  it 
necessary  that  the  teacher  call  the  attention  of  the  pupil 
or  pupils  to  every  little  disorder  in  the  room.  Much  in 
the  schoolroom  may  be  passed  over  as  of  no  importance  in 
supervision.  Many  pupils  will  deliberately  do  things  to 
attract  the  attention  of  the  teacher  or  to  disturb  other  pupils 
about  them.  To  follow  such  pupils  up  in  their  little  acts 
is  often  to  do  just  what  they  desire,  namely  to  call  attention 
to  them,  magnify  their  acts  and  let  them  know  that  they  are 
a  source  of  annoyance  to  the  school  in  which  instance  so- 
called  "  bad  cases  "  may  result.  It  is  much  better  that 
these  should  be  treated  either  indifferently  or  quietly  directed 
to  some  sort  of  activity  in  harmony  with  the  activity  of  the 
other  pupils.  There  is,  however,  a  certain  kind  and  amount 
of  noise  and  disorder  necessary  in  every  schoolroom.  It  is 
the  noise  and  disorder  of  work.  While  this  kind  of  noise 
and  disorder  should  be  invited,  it  should  also  be  controlled 
and  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Such  noise  and  disorder  is  a  joy 
to  the  'teacher.  He  knows  then  that  everybody  is  at  his 
or  her  work.  It  may  be  the  movements  in  the  seat,  that  from 
seat  to  seat  or  that  from  seat  to  blackboard,  to  the  teacher's 
desk  or  to  some  remote  part  of  the  room  for  some  tool  or  in- 
strument of  labor,  that  causes  disorder  or  noise,  but  in  it 
all  there  is  that  conscious  satisfaction  so  utterly  wanting 
when  there  is  noise  and  disorder  without  resulting  work  or 
results  from  work.  Children  come  to  school  to  work,  to  be 
taught  and  to  be  trained.  It  is  to  attain  this  end  that  su- 
pervision is  necessary  and  is  prevalent  in  schoolrooms.  It 
aims  to  give  the  best  possible  working  conditions  for  study 
and  learning.  In  the  schoolroom  where  we  have  to  deal  with 
the  variety  of  individuals  present  in  mass  education,  it  is 
necessary  that  in  the  mass  the  individual  be  not  neglected, 
but  that  he  be  given  at  times  special  consideration.  Super- 
vision is  high  class  only  when  it  enables  each  pupil  to  receive 
special  bits  of  attention  without  the  work  of  the  class  as  a 
whole  suffering  thereby.  Unfortunately  in  our  wellfilled, 
if  not  crowded  schoolrooms  we  are  to  too  great  an  extent 
compelled  to  neglect  the  individual  pupil.     Individual  train- 


The  Schoolroom  129 

ing  is  lost  sight  of  in  the  effort  to  attain  group  training. 
Our  school  plans  are  laid  out  for  an  ideal  "  average  pupil  " 
who  does  not  exist  and  all  of  our  efforts  are  directed  toward 
his  education.  Such  a  method  of  education  is  and  must  be 
on  the  whole  fruitless  of  results  as  most  teachers  have  found 
out  by  practice.  Life  is  an  individual  affair.  And  so  must 
the  best  forms  of  education  be  individual  education  if  it  is 
to  fit  one  for  life.  Where  an  overcrowded  curriculum  or  an 
overfilled  schoolroom  will  not  permit  individual  education  the 
teacher  must  approximate  the  work  of  the  school  to  the  needs 
of  all  and  still  endeavor  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  this  average 
pupil  in  order  that  he  may  do  lasting  and  fruitful  work. 
School  work  fails  chiefly  in  that  it  is  not  individualistic  but 
general.  If  we  educated  a  general  or  average  ideal  pupil 
then  education  might  well  be  general  or  ideal.  But  what  we 
labor  with  in  the  schoolroom  is  not  an  average,  general  or 
ideal  pupil,  but  a  special,  concrete  individual  pupil  or  groups 
of  pupils  as  individuals  and  as  such  we  must  endeavor  to  edu- 
cate him  or  them  specifically  and  in  detail. 

Time  and  Energy  in  School  Processes.  The  chief  prob- 
lems of  the  schoolroom  revolve  as  was  said  upon  the  ques- 
tions of  time  and  energy.  The  energy  naturally  in  the  child 
is  sufficient  (often  more  than  sufficient)  for  the  ordinary  rou- 
tine of  school  without  any  special  attempt  at  conservation 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  With  time  it  is  different.  There 
is  generally  too  little  time  rather  than  enough  or  too  much 
of  it.  Time  conservation  then  becomes  the  greater  of  the 
two  problems  in  the  schoolroom.  Especially  is  this  true  in 
the  graded  school  or  where  there  is  more  than  one  grade  in 
a  room  to  be  handled  by  one  teacher.  While,  therefore,  all 
school  supervision  has  for  its  main  purpose  the  conserva- 
tion of  time,  in  the  rural  ungraded  school  especially  the  ques- 
tion of  time  conservation  easily  takes  first  place.  Much, 
almost  too  much  has  to  be  crowded  into  the  brief  school  day 
with  its  still  briefer  recitation  periods.  On  the  problem  of 
time  conservation  in  the  schoolroom  much  thought  and  ex- 
perimentation have  been  spent.  Further,  it  is  agreed  by  all 
who  have  given  study  to  the  question  that  the  teacher  can 
do  much  toward  this  end  by  applying  method  and  devising 


ISO  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

routine  to  save  time  for  study  and  learning  and  thereby  re- 
duce the  waste  of  time  in  the  performance  of  the  necessary 
schoolroom  functions  to  a  minimum.  These  methods  and 
devices  are  either  physical  or  spiritual.  The  physical  aids 
to  the  supervision  of  the  schoolroom  are  the  proper  seating  of 
the  pupil  based  on  a  study  of  their  temperament  and  social 
compatibility,  the  proper  seating  of  pupils  based  on  a  study 
of  the  fitness  of  the  seats  in  size,  in  their  proximity  to  the 
light  and  heat,  and  in  their  access  to  ventilation  (fresh  air 
supply),  in  the  general  attractiveness  of  the  schoolroom  and 
in  the  general  movements  in  and  about  the  room.  The  spir- 
itual method  or  devices  for  good  supervision  are  tact,  com- 
mon sense,  discretion,  sympathy,  pleasantness  of  manner, 
skill  in  handling  pupil  and  subject  matter,  scholarship,  en- 
thusiasm, and  a  general  high  tension  with  quickened  sense 
activity. 

Physical  Aids  to  Successful  Supervision.  Proper  seating. 
The  bodily  comfort  of  a  pupil  has  much  to  do  with  his 
mental  energy  and  will  power.  The  problem  of  seats  has 
already  been  discussed  in  the  previous  chapter  and  a  little 
was  said  incidentally  about  seating.  Seating  of  pupils  can 
add  or  detract  much  from  the  general  student  habits  and 
abilities  of  a  pupil.  Bodily  discomforts  besides  fretting  a 
pupil  and  making  him  peevish  and  irritable  exhaust  the 
bodily  energy,  use  up  energy  that  should  be  available  for 
effort  in  the  mastery  of  lessons  and  in  the  movements  re- 
quired for  the  recitation  proper.  The  pupil  worn  out  by 
the  restless  turning,  because  of  the  pain  in  the  pelvic  region, 
brought  on  by  improper  curvature  in  the  desk  seat,  or  legs 
tired  from  dangling  in  the  air,  or  from  faulty  support  for 
the  back  from  the  desk  chair,  is  in  no  way  mentally  fit,  either 
to  receive  or  retain  the  subject  matter  presented  in  the  lesson 
or  appreciate  the  general  manner  of  the  teacher  or  the  at- 
titude of  his  fellows.  Many  a  pupil  otherwise  bright  and 
easily  controlled  loses  hold  upon  himself  and  his  lessons  be- 
cause of  the  exhaustion  brought  on  by  sitting  in  a  desk  seat 
which  is  not  properly  adjusted  to  his  height  nor  to  the  gen- 
eral contour  of  the  body  in  its  natural  positions  when  seated. 
In  the  cases  of  highly  sensitive  temperaments  the  effect  from 


The  Schoolroom  131 

the  strain  produced  by  improper  seat  adjustment  and  seat 
accommodation  is  quickly  noticeable.  There  is  a  like  re- 
sponse to  light,  heat  and  ventilation.  Children  with  poor 
or  defective  eyes  when  seated  at  a  distance  from  the  lighting 
surface,  because  of  the  strain  caused  by  working  in  poor 
light  soon  become  fatigued  and  before  long  the  exhausted 
energies  and  lagging  movements  will  show  themselves  in  the 
form  of  indisposition  to  do,  and  other  forms  of  reaction 
that  make  for  poor  school  work.  Under  the  influence  of 
certain  stimuli,  such  as  promise  of  reward,  desire  for  high 
grades,  love  of  emulation,  or  fear  of  rebuke,  or  punishment, 
the  will  may  revive  or  spur  on  the  flagging  energies,  but  soon 
they  will  fail  to  respond  to  the  will  and  the  usefulness  of 
the  school  processes  at  least  for  the  time  being,  are  at  an 
end.  This  is  one  explanation  of  the  poor  work  of  students 
on  cloudy  days,  another  being  that  the  absence  of  sunlight 
produces  retardation  in  all  of  the  bodily  functions,  thereby 
making  the  vital  functions  low  and  the  energy  generated 
small  in  quantity  in  comparison  with  that  produced  on  bright 
sunshining  days. 

Fresh  Air.  The  action  of  fresh  air  obtained  in  a  school- 
room through  ventilation  is  similar  to  that  of  light.  Fresh 
air  increases  the  vital  functions  and  the  number  of  red 
corpuscles  in  the  blood.  The  bodily  processes  thereby  are 
quickened  and  deoxidation  with  its  consequent  generation 
of  heat  and  the  production  of  waste  material  is  aided  by 
fresh  air.  Thus  in  the  normal  schoolroom  good  ventilation 
is  necessary,  not  alone  for  the  general  health  of  all,  but  is 
necessary  also  for  the  energy  made  available  thereby  for 
the  schoolroom  work  and  activity.  Now  it  is  a  fact  that 
deoxidation  goes  on  normally  more  rapidly  in  some  pupils 
than  in  others  and  in  the  case  of  disease  and  sickness  the  same 
is  true.  This  means  that  it  requires  more  fresh  air  for 
the  same  results  in  some  pupils  than  in  others,  and  that 
some  pupils  may  with  benefit  have  more  ventilation  in  a 
room  than  others.  Where  this  is  impossible  the  best  results 
can  be  obtained  by  falling  back  on  the  proposition  of  seating. 
Such  pupils  may  be  seated  nearer  the  source  of  the  fresh 
air  supply  than  others.     This  will  be  found  to  give  more 


132  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

nearly  the  desired  results.  The  same  is  true  in  the  case  of 
the  heat  produced  by  deoxidation  and  functional  activity. 
These  generate  the  bodily  heat  and  maintain  the  bodily 
temperature  and  are  affected  noticeably  by  the  temperature 
and  ventilation  of  the  room.  Since  these  processes  vary  in 
strength  in  different  individuals  it  obviously  follows  that 
some  pupils  will  not  only  be  able  to  stand  more  heat  than 
others,  but  some  will  actually  require  more  heat  for  their 
bodily  comfort  than  others.  All  teachers  have  met  in  their 
experiences  with  the  pupil  who  is  eternally  annoying  them 
because  always  too  warm  as  well  as  he  who  is  doing  the  same 
because  eternally  too  cold.  They  have  also  had  them  ex- 
hibiting all  of  the  intervening  stages  of  bodily  temperature 
requirements.  But  not  only  can  these  circumstances  not 
be  avoided,  but  they  are  vital  in  the  schoolroom.  Their 
careful  observance  means  first  of  all  much  in  health  to  the 
pupil,  and  not  only  this  but  that  which  is  of  equal  concern 
to  know  here,  they  mean  much  to  the  working  efficiency  of 
the  pupil  and  successful  supervision  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher.  Pupils  whose  energies  are  taxed  unduly  to  furnish 
the  required  amount  of  heat  for  the  body,  whether  because 
the  temperature  of  the  room  is  unduly  low  or  because  the  air 
does  not  furnish  the  amount  of  oxygen  necessary  for  vigorous 
vital  function  as  well  as  those  whose  energies  are  exhausted 
by  overcoming  strain  produced  by  an  overdemand  on  the 
part  of  the  body  to  accommodate  itself  to  any  normal  con- 
dition in  the  environment  of  the  schoolroom,  are  in  a  cor- 
responding degree  disabled  and  their  power  for  work  de- 
creased, whereupon  time  not  only  is  not  conserved  but  all 
of  the  school  processes  suffer  accordingly.  The  true  im- 
port of  these  questions  to  the  pupil  cannot  be  overestimated. 
Anything  in  the  schoolroom  which  tends  to  bodily  comfort 
or  mental  ease  and  satisfaction  raises  the  working  efficiency 
of  the  school  and  conserves  time  in  a  way  little  realized  by 
most  teachers.  School  esthetics  such  as  pictures  and  paint- 
ings on  the  wall,  everything  of  a  decorative  or  artistic  nature 
indirectly  affects  the  attitude  and  manner  of  pupil  and 
teacher  and  reacts  upon  their  work. 

Mechanism  in  the  Schoolroom,     In  reducing  the  super- 


The  Schoolroom  133 

vision  of  the  schoolroom  to  a  minimum  and  raising  the  work- 
ing efficiency  to  a  maximum,  much  can  be  done  by  mechaniz- 
ing the  school  movements.  There  is,  however,  serious  op- 
position among  modern  and  advanced  educators  to  reducing 
school  movements  to  a  mechanism.  The  modern  tendency 
in  education  is  toward  individualism,  with  all  of  the  freedom 
of  development  and  independence  of  action  which  the  word 
implies.  Consequently  it  is  not  surprising  to  see  the  most 
penetrative  minds  and  trenchant  pens  directed  against  the 
introduction  of  mechanism  into  the  movements  of  the  school- 
room. However,  in  our  schoolrooms  which  are  crowded  with 
pupils  and  with  the  curriculum  too  large  for  both  pupils  and 
teacher,  a  demand  for  time  conservation  and  a  high  working 
efficiency  is  bound  to  creep  in  and  make  itself  felt  impera- 
tively. For  the  benefit  of  these  it  will  be  well  to  discuss  the 
problem  of  mechanism  in  the  schoolroom,  and  see  its  good 
points  as  well  as  its  bad  points  and  leave  its  application  and 
uses  in  the  schoolroom  to  the  intelligence  and  discretion  of 
the  individual  teacher.  Education  as  promulgated  and 
fostered  by  the  state  is  for  the  purpose  of  producing  a  good 
citizenship.  As  governments  change  the  type  of  citizenship 
will  change  and  the  forms  of  education  fostered  by  the  state 
will  soon  be  so  modified  as  to  produce  a  modified  citizenship 
in  accordance  with  the  changing  political  views  and  duties. 
It  might  with  more  truth  be  said  that  one  is  reciprocally 
reactive  upon  the  other,  the  institutions  of  government  and 
the  institutions  of  education  change  together.  In  the  past 
when  governments  ruled  by  mere  force  and  citizens  were  the 
mechanical  cogs  in  the  machinery  of  government  who  followed 
law  in  a  blind  mechanical  way,  the  pupil  was  prepared  for 
this  kind  of  citizenship  by  a  school  routine  that  reduced  all 
of  his  movements  to  a  mechanism,  and  by  force  (corporal 
punishment)  compelled  him  without  explanation  or  enlight- 
ment  to  follow  the  arbitrary  instruction  and  will  of  the 
teacher.  With  the  rise  of  government  from  this  level  to  a 
higher  one  of  freedom  processes  have  looked  more  to  a  de- 
velopment of  freedom  of  action  and  individualism  in  thought. 
This  advanced  method  in  education  has  gained  ^,  powerful 
hold  in  the  schoolroom.     But  the  old  school  of  educators 


134  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

are  not  going  to  give  up  without  a  struggle.  There  is  to  be 
sure  much  of  merit  in  the  claims  of  each.  It  is  true  that 
the  niceties  of  mechanism  are  used  by  many  a  poor  teacher  as 
a  ready  cover  for  many  of  his  faults  in  teaching  that  would 
otherwise  stand  out  glaringly.  In  fact  the  chief  complaint 
against  mechanism  in  school  routine  is  that  it  is  the  harbor 
too  often  sought  by  the  incompetent  teacher.  The  teacher 
confident  in  his  ability,  full  of  enthusiasm  and  winning  in 
manner  frets  under  the  strain  and  restraint  of  a  stolid 
mechanism.  He  is  desirous  of  freedom  both  in  himself  and 
in  the  pupil  under  his  supervision.  The  opponents  of  me- 
chanical routine  believe  that  conduct  should  come  from  within 
and  not  be  forced  upon  the  pupil  from  without.  With 
these  all  pupils  should  be  self-governed.  In  fact  so  thor- 
oughly has  this  idea  of  education  dominated  our  present 
day  educational  methods  that  the  hands  of  government  of 
some  schools  of  higher  learning  are  left  almost  entirely  to  the 
students  themselves.  While  under  the  same  idea  in  the 
public  schools  of  many  cities  the  inhibition  of  self-activity 
by  corporal  punishment  has  been  forbidden  under  the  plea 
that  child  activity  should  not  be  crushed  but  rather  be  per- 
suaded and  guided  into  a  strong  individuality  by  the  rational 
method  of  being  told  the  whys  and  wherefors  of  everything 
required  of  him.  On  the  other  hand  the  advocates  of  the 
mechanical  routine  argue  that  the  child  of  the  graded  school 
and  especially  of  the  lower  grades  is  not  prepared  for  self- 
government  and  cannot  therefore  successfully  govern  him- 
self. Hence  their  claim  that  he  should  be  forced  to  do  some 
things  recognized  to  be  for  his  own  good  whether  he  wishes 
to  or  not  without  being  told  the  whys  and  wherefors,  and 
this  too  even  if  corporal  punishment  is  necessary  to  accom- 
plish the  desired  end.  All  of  the  intermediate  stages  be- 
tween mechanism  of  routine  and  freedom  in  school  process 
have  their  advocates.  Experiment  and  experience,  however, 
have  proved  that  some  children  require  more  mechanical 
movements  in  school  while  others  require  less,  and  that  the 
higher  the  grade  of  pupils  the  more  in  each  will  be  found 
who  can  be  trusted  to  govern  themselves.  So  that  at  bottom 
the  question  is  not  as  to  whether  or  not  there  should  be  mech- 


Tlie  Schoolroom  135 

anism  in  schoolroom  movements,  but  how  much  is  required 
to  get  the  desired  results  of  conservation  of  time  and  work- 
ing efficiency  with  the  least  loss  of  individual  activity  on 
the  part  of  the  pupil.  This  must  be  left  to  the  teacher  and 
his  judgment  of  the  needs  of  his  pupils  and  the  work  re- 
quired of  him.  The  value  of  mechanical  movements  in  the 
schoolroom  no  one  of  any  experience  will  deny.  Lessons 
in  law,  order,  regularity  and  concerted  action  are  of  ines- 
timable value  to  the  young  growing  mind.  What  kind  of 
characters  would  otherwise  evolve  from  the  home  and  the 
school,  we  can  all  picture  quite  vividly  in  the  imagination. 
No  parent  desires  a  child  nor  does  the  state  a  citizen,  that 
has  no  sense  of  concerted  action  or  cooperation,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  while  one  who  has  no  conception  of  regu- 
larity and  precision  of  group  consciousness  and  orderly 
action,  is  equally  undesirable  both  as  a  companion  in  the 
home,  in  society  and  in  the  state.  However,  there  are  co- 
gent reasons  against  the  mechanizing  of  school  movements, 
many  of  which  are  decidedly  opposed  to  the  modern  educa- 
tional tendency  toward  individualism,  self-activity  and  self- 
government.  In  group  activity  the  individual  is  too  prone 
to  lose  self-consciousness  in  the  presence  of  group  conscious- 
ness. This  tendency  needs  to  be  corrected  rather  than  en- 
couraged. Again,  however,  it  might  be  added  that  there  are 
some  spirits  which  are  sufficiently  self-assertive  and  free  to 
overcome  all  influences  directed  toward  mechanical  action 
and  group  consciousness  and  press  toward  self  expression, 
and  individual  thought  and  action.  For  those  less  strongly 
impelled  in  the  direction  by  nature  the  presence  of  mechanical 
movements  in  the  schoolroom  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  a 
benefit. 

The  opposition  to  the  reduction  of  the  schoolroom  move- 
ments to  a  mechanical  routine  has  justification  that  is  funda- 
mental and  which  lies  at  the  bottom  of  our  physical  and 
mental  structure.  The  school  aims  to  fit  one  for  the  activi- 
ties of  life.  Now  for  success  in  life  we  need  the  power  and 
the  desire  to  take  the  initiative,  that  is,  the  ability  to  meet 
and  cope  successfully  with  the  emergencies,  the  crises  of  life. 
Mechanism  deadens  if  it  does  not  destroy  the  tendency  to 


136  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

initiative  action.  In  life  we  need  a  high  power  of  reflection 
for  the  solution  of  novel  experiences,  thought  compelling 
surprises  and  the  intricate  problems  of  life.  Mechanical 
routine  in  school  movements  tends  to  weaken  both  reason  and 
judgment.  In  life  we  need  independence  of  action  and  self- 
assertiveness  in  thought  to  lead  us  to  discovery  and  inven- 
tion and  the  consequent  material  advance  which  they  afford 
us  in  life  and  habits  of  living.  Mechanical  routine  stifles 
both  independence  of  action  and  self-assertiveness  in  thought. 
Self-government  and  individualism  are  the  under-lying  prin- 
ciples in  all  forms  of  democratic  government  in  fact  are  a 
necessity  for  its  very  existence  and  perpetuation.  The  ar- 
bitrary and  despotic  rule  blindly  initiated  and  more  blindly 
enforced  destroys  both  the  nascent  power  for  self-govern- 
ment and  the  innate  tendency  to  individualism.  The  mind 
to  be  at  its  best  must  have  freedom  of  action.  Minds  re- 
stricted in  action  tend  to  become  weaker.  The  body  to  be 
developed  to  its  fullest  capacity  must  have  full  and  free  play 
for  the  exercise  of  every  normal  function.  Hence  any  sys- 
tem of  training  and  education  which  has  as  its  basis  restric- 
tion and  curtailment  of  action  is  at  best  faulty  and  vicious. 
Consequently  the  only  justification  that  restriction  in  action 
and  mechanization  of  routine  can  possibly  have  is  that  it 
conserves  time  and  raises  the  working  coefficient  of  the  school- 
room. This  is  its  sole  reason  of  being,  its  only  justification. 
To  make  it  serve  any  other  purpose  in  the  schoolroom  is  to 
vitiate  the  purpose  of  the  schoolroom  processes  and  to  rob 
mechanization  of  all  usefulness  as  a  school  method. 

The  mechanization  of  schoolroom  routine  should  be  begun 
on  the  school  grounds  with  some  agreed  upon  signal  as  a  warn- 
ing signal  of  the  approach  of  the  opening  hour.  Following 
this  in  order  of  time  at  least  should  come  those  for  forming 
lines,  followed  at  the  proper  interval  by  those  to  "  mark 
time  "  and  "  march."  Orderly  lines  with  good  posture  and 
carriage  and  even  step  leave  a  pleasing  effect  upon  the 
visitor  and  has  a  tendency  to  inspire  respect  and  obedience 
on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  These  mechanical  processes  of 
entering  and  leaving  and  proceeding  to  and  from  the  rooms 
should  be  succeeded  by  like  ones  in  the  schoolroom  itself, 


The  Schoolroom  137 

if  mechanical  routine  is  to  be  of  greatest  service  in  the 
school  work.  This  routine  process  should  also  extend 
throughout  the  school  year.  Demand  for  such  mechanical 
movements  is  presented  in  class  movements  to  and  from  the 
blackboards  and  recitation  benches  and  in  the  passing  and 
collecting  of  the  various  working  material  of  the  pupils,  such 
as  maps,  books,  papers,  pencils,  etc.,  and  even  in  the  dis- 
tributing and  collecting  of  wraps.  By  having  a  place  for 
everybody  and  everything  connected  with  the  school  and 
school  routine,  and  by  having  things  taken  from  their  places 
and  returned  to  them  in  order  and  with  regularity  much  time 
is  saved,  to  say  nothing  of  the  wholesome  and  salutary  effect 
of  such  conditions  upon  the  mind  of  the  pupil.  Too,  efforts 
to  obtain  neatness  and  uniformity  in  work  should  not  be 
omitted  from  the  mechanical  movements  of  the  schoolroom, 
if  they  are  to  bring  out  most  that  is  good  in  them.  The  de- 
tail for  such  mechanical  movements  cannot  be  gone  into 
here.  The  teacher  must  devise  his  own  scheme  and  code  of 
signals  as  the  equipment  of  the  schoolroom  and  the  age  of 
the  pupils  in  the  schoolroom  make  necessary.  These  mat- 
ters can  be  worked  out  in  detail  to  suit  the  wishes  of  the  in- 
dividual teachers,  care  being  exercised  always  to  regard 
these  matters  not  as  an  end  in  itself  in  schoolroom  supervi- 
sion but  only  as  a  means  to  the  conservation  of  time  and 
the  increase  of  the  working  efficiency  of  the  pupil.  Put  to 
any  other  purpose  mechanical  routine  has  little  place  in  the 
schoolroom  processes  and  little  or  no  justification  in  educa- 
tional systems. 

Mechanical  routine  in  the  schoolroom  even  when  used  ju- 
diciously and  sparingly  creates  much  extra  work  for  the 
teacher.  This  work  it  is  customary  to  detail  upon  monitors. 
The  habit  of  selecting  monitors  is  a  matter  fraught  with  con- 
siderable danger  to  the  general  wellbeing  of  the  school  and 
the  pupil  unless  much  care  is  exercised  in  employing  the  right 
to  select  pupils  for  such  work.  All  pupils,  the  good  and 
the  bad  alike  like  to  be  monitors.  On  a  principle  of  absolute 
justice  all  alike  have  an  equal  right  to  be  chosen  for  monitor 
duty.  In  order  therefore  that  all  be  given  an  equal  chance 
at  the  opportunity,  on  a  basis  of  merit  that  is  openly  fair  to 


138  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

all,  some  method  of  selecting  them  should  be  adopted  and 
made  known  to  all  before  hand.  By  no  means  is  it  a  good 
method  to  let  the  selection  of  monitors  be  known  to  be  a 
matter  of  personal  preference  of  the  teacher,  or  that  it  is 
used  to  pay  for  special  personal  favors.  Monitorships  be- 
stowed for  excellence  in  deportment  or  any  line  of  work  can- 
not but  have  a  good  effect  on  the  morals  of  the  school  and 
call  forth  a  responsive  cord  among  the  pupils.  Nothing 
breaks  in  upon  the  order  of  the  school,  affects  for  worse  its 
working  capacity,  and  lowers  the  esteem  of  the  teacher  in 
the  eyes  of  the  pupils  than  a  system  of  petty  favoritism. 
Of  course,  some  pupils  will  do  our  work  better  than  others, 
but  be  that  as  it  may  in  general  the  best  results  in  the  school- 
room will  obtain  if  we  pick  our  pupils  for  their  various  serv- 
ices upon  a  common  basis  of  merit,  so  determined  that  all  will 
know  that  they  have  an  equal  chance  in  the  struggle.  For 
matters  of  supervision  and  government  it  will  pay,  once  we 
have  through  the  announced  process  chosen  a  pupil  as  moni- 
tor and  he  prove  unsatisfactory  to  have  patience  and  train 
him  rather  than  to  pass  him  by  or  dismiss  him  (unless  in  cases 
of  punishment  for  acts  of  willful  carelessness  or  other  faults 
which  he  exhibits  as  willful)  and  thereby  let  him  know  that 
he  has  no  chance  to  become  a  monitor  whatever  might  be  his 
general  virtues  in  the  school  processes  and  the  school  rou- 
tine. The  force  of  this  suggestion  cannot  be  overestimated. 
Here  is  a  stumbling  block  for  many  a  teacher  who  finds  that 
his  pupils  dislike  him  and  cannot  tell  why.  Teachers  often 
fail  from  causes  arising  out  of  such  errors  of  judgment  of 
real  fairness.  A  safe  way  always  is  to  dispense  favors 
generally.  In  this  connection  too  it  may  be  added  inci- 
dentally that  many  a  time  a  notoriously  bad  pupil  may  be 
won  over  for  his  everlasting  good  by  a  well  bestowed  favor 
at  the  hands  of  a  discreet  teacher. 

Social  Surrounding  as  an  Aid  to  Supervision.  As  im- 
portant as  are  the  questions  of  mechanical  routine  and 
physical  comfort  of  the  pupil  from  the  viewpoint  of  their 
access  to  the  necessary  amount  of  light,  heat  and  ventilation 
they  are  perhaps  secondary  in  importance  to  their  access 
to  favorable  and  comfortable  social  surroundings.     The  most 


The  Schoolroom  139 

inexperienced  teacher  soon  becomes  aware  of  the  fact  that 
certain  pupils  are  more  or  less  susceptible  to  certain  social 
influences  of  the  schoolroom.  In  general  the  social  compati- 
bility of  pupils  varies.  Some  pupils  are  at  home  anywhere 
in  the  schoolroom,  while  others  have  few  friends  and  gain 
these  few  slowly  and  are  content  to  sit  only  in  that  immediate 
neighborhood.  When  seated  in  one  section  of  the  room  in 
the  midst  of  one  group  of  pupils,  a  pupil  may  be  very  talka- 
tive and  disorderly,  or  on  the  other  hand  silent  and  industri- 
ous. Then  again  a  new  social  environment  in  the  schoolroom 
may  have  one  effect  upon  a  given  pupil  for  a  while,  but  as 
the  surrounding  pupils  become  known  to  the  pupil  newly 
come  into  their  midst,  these  previous  attitudes  may  change 
and  show  themselves  in  his  conduct  for  better  or  for  worse. 
Boys  and  girls  much  given  to  disturbing  the  quiet  of  the  room 
by  their  talk  or  play  may  be  successfully  quieted  by  being 
placed  among  pupils  who  will  not  talk  with  them  and  who 
will  resent  being  disturbed  in  their  quiet  and  work.  Mis- 
behaved pupils  may  often  with  advantage  be  disposed  of  in 
like  manner.  Lazy  pupils  too  may  at  times  be  aroused  to 
work  by  being  moved  into  the  midst  of  a  group  of  industri- 
ous pupils  and  their  ambitions  thereby  aroused  to  the  extent 
where  it  will  arouse  them  to  action.  These  statements  are 
not  only  based  upon  a  wide  and  varied  experience  and  ex- 
periment but  are  based  upon  fundamental  qualities  in  human 
nature.  In  a  like  manner  it  is  known  that  some  pupils  do 
well  nearer  the  teacher's  desk,  the  source  of  power,  control 
and  the  exercise  of  arbitrary  authority.  Such  pupils  soon 
become  conscious  of  any  distance  between  them,  and  the 
source  of  control  and  feeling  that  they  are  to  more  extent 
out  of  reach  of  such  power,  and  can  therefore  do  certain 
things  without  being  detected  and  punished  will  attempt 
many  more  things  that  tend  to  upset  the  order  of  the  room. 
There  are  also  in  every  room  pupils  who  will  be  well  behaved 
in  any  part  of  the  room  far  from  the  teacher's  desk  or  near 
it.  There  are  also  in  some  rooms  at  times  pupils  who  will 
hardly  behave  in  any  part  of  it,  at  least  not  until  a  great 
effort  is  brought  to  bear  to  force  good  behavior.  The 
former  the  teacher  can  use  as  a  leavening  power  to  raise  the 


140  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

order  and  working  efficiency  of  the  room  by  use  of  good  judg- 
ment in  their  seating.  The  latter  must  either  be  conquered 
by  some  harsh  or  diplomatic  measures  or  if  despaired  of  he 
may  be  removed  by  suspension  or  expulsion  or  as  is  done  in 
some  city  schools,  he  may  be  sent  to  the  school  for  incor- 
rigibles.  With  these  facts  before  him  the  judicious  teacher 
can  so  seat  his  pupils  from  the  viewpoint  of  social  com- 
patibility that  his  supervision  necessary  for  control  will  be 
reduced  to  a  minimum. 

In  the  seating  of  pupils,  however,  the  bad  or  unruly  pupil 
is  not  the  only  one  to  be  considered.  If  we  did  this  we 
would  place  a  premium  upon  badness  or  unruliness.  In  gen- 
eral we  seat  pupils  in  the  schoolroom  according  to  their  size 
and  age  and  sometimes  in  ungraded  schools  or  in  schools 
where  more  than  one  class  is  in  one  room  we  seat  them  by 
classes.  Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  method 
of  seating  to  satisfy  the  individual  demands  for  light,  heat 
and  ventilation  as  well  as  to  satisfy  the  demand  for  certain 
sizes  of  desk,  height  of  desk  tops  and  seat  and  seat  backs. 
Apart  from  these  considerations  the  well  behaved  pupil  is 
due  some  consideration  if  for  no  other  reason  than  that  he 
is  well  behaved.  It  is  very  often  a  punishment  to  annoy 
well  behaved  hard-working  students  by  putting  into  their 
midst  ill  behaved,  lazy  ones.  And  the  practice  is  above  all 
other  things  to  be  strongly  condemned  on  general  principles. 
Besides  making  the  good,  industrious  student  suffer  for  be- 
ing such  it  is  making  him  carry  the  burden  of  discipline  and 
government  when  it  should  rest  in  reality  upon  the  teacher. 
This  side  of  the  question  should  be  well  weighed  by  every 
teacher  before  going  into  the  proposition  of  seating  for  con- 
duct and  work  only.  Besides  that,  there  is  always  present 
the  danger  of  having  the  good  pupil  corrupted  by  the  bad 
one.  In  all  cases  of  seating  for  ease  and  facility  of  super- 
vision then,  the  good  pupil  should  not  be  hampered  to  any 
great  extent  in  his  work  or  his  habits  otherwise  of  good  work 
and  conduct  endangered.  Where  he  is  used  as  a  means  of 
tempering  the  conduct  of  another  pupil,  the  moment  the  so- 
cial contact  is  found  to  have  a  harmful  effect  upon  him  either 
in  weakening  his  power  of  moral  restraint  or  in  fretting  him 


The  Schoolroom  141 

and  decreasing  his  working  efficiency,  the  annoying  presence 
should  be  removed.  With  this  care,  though  that  method 
of  checkmating  bad  children  in  their  acts  by  removing  them 
to  different  and  often  better  social  environment  is  often  seri- 
ously condemned,  it  is  I  think  safe  to  say  that  it  may  be 
practiced  discreetly  for  ends  of  minimum  supervision  and 
maximum  working  efficiency.  In  the  case  of  putting  lazy 
and  indolent  pupils  in  the  midst  of  bright  industrious  ones 
the  danger  of  tempting  the  lazy  ones  to  prey  upon  and  copy 
off  of  the  smart,  as  well  as  having  the  tendency  to  become 
lazy,  spread  and  infect  the  others,  must  be  carefully  watched 
for  and  guarded  against  and  a  change  of  seat  arrangement 
made  at  the  first  signs  of  contamination. 

Psychical  Aids  to  Supervision.  Besides  these  physical 
means  of  stimulating  the  child  to  work  and  giving  him  certain 
physical  aids  in  his  environment  in  pursuing  his  work  and 
thereby  conserving  both  his  time  and  energy  and  raising 
the  working  efficiency  of  the  school,  there  are  certain  mental 
attitudes  which  when  possessed  by  the  teacher  do  much  to- 
ward promoting  the  facility  and  the  rapidity  of  the  work. 
By  the  judicious  exercise  of  good  common  sense  (a  word 
which  all  know  and  understand,  but  which  few  if  any  can 
satisfactorily  define),  the  school  processes  can  be  developed 
to  a  high  degree  of  efficiency.  Common  sense  has  been  wit- 
tingly defined  as  sense  in  common  things.  Accepting  this 
definition  of  the  word  it  is  evident  that  common  sense  is  what 
every  teacher  needs  who  would  be  a  success  in  the  work  of  the 
schoolroom.  This  provides  a  cure  for  every  ill,  whether  it 
be  due  to  light,  heat,  ventilation,  seating,  seats,  laziness  of 
pupil,  social  compatibility  or  what  not,  a  resourceful  common 
sense  will  adjust  it  satisfactorily  to  all  and  to  the  best  good 
of  the  schoolroom  and  its  processes.  Some  authors  recently 
have  named  this  quality  of  mind  "  tact."  But  whether  we 
know  it  by  the  name  of  tact  or  common  sense  it  is  that  quality 
of  mind  that  enables  one  to  meet  successfully  the  emergen- 
cies in  the  affairs  of  life  and  which  must  be  constantly  in 
evidence  in  the  schoolroom  for  the  best  good  of  all  concerned. 
In  its  finest  and  most  practical  form  it  enables  one  almost 
instinctively  to  do  the  right  thing  in  the  right  way  and  at 


148  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

the  right  time.  The  greatest  problem  of  a  teacher  is  to 
think  and  feel  with  the  pupils,  to  put  himself  in  the  pupil's 
place  mentally.  Unless  this  can  be  done  successfully  the 
teacher  often  falls  into  the  serious  error  of  inferring 
wrong  motives  in  child  action.  The  fact  is  much  of  the 
action  of  children  is  unmotivated  (without  conscious  motive, 
but  rather  impulsive  and  unreflective).  In  such  cases  any 
motive  inferred  or  ascribed  to  an  act  would  of  course  be  the 
wrong  motive.  Teachers  inclined  to  attribute  motives  to 
child  action  soon  get  the  reputation  among  the  pupils  of 
being  unfair  and  unreasonable  and  immediately  fall  heir  to 
the  entire  train  of  consequent  ills  of  bad  supervision  with  its 
resulting  dissipation  of  time  and  energy  and  low  working 
efficiency.  Out  of  common  sense  discretion  and  sympathy 
come.  No  one  can  put  themselves  into  the  place  of  chil- 
dren and  not  sympatize  with  them.  The  fact  is  a  truism. 
Sympathy  with  a  child  means  of  necessity  a  complete  under- 
standing of  child  nature  even  down  to  its  emotions,  impulses 
and  strong  tendencies  to  action.  Sympathy  soon  touches 
a  responsive  cord  in  all  but  the  morally  depraved  and  some- 
times even  he  can  be  finally  reached  by  persistence.  Stability 
in  character,  evenness  in  temper  and  consistency  in  using 
and  enforcing  rules  all  are  strong  guarantees  of  success  for 
the  teacher. 

Next  in  importance  to  these  as  aids  in  raising  the  working 
efficiency  of  the  schoolroom  are  a  pleasant  manner,  skill 
in  handling  subject  matter  of  the  lesson,  general  evidences 
of  scholarship  and  a  high  moral  conception,  with  a  daily 
evidence  of  exemplary  conduct.  It  has  been  said  that  in  the 
economy  of  life  pleasures  tend  to  increase  life's  activities, 
while  pain  tends  to  decrease  these.  The  organism  in  its 
efforts  to  live,  seeks  to  gain  and  retain  pleasurable  states  of 
mind  and  body,  while  it  seeks  on  the  other  hand  to  overcome 
and  avoid  painful  states.  It  is  also  a  fact  obtained  through 
the  same  processes  of  reasoning  that  we  tend  to  retain  well 
the  conceptions  of  pleasures  and  tend  to  forget  quickly  the 
conceptions  of  pain.  But  whether  there  be  any  claims  in 
truth  in  these  conclusions  or  not,  certain  it  is,  that  a  pleasant 
mannered  teacher  working  in   a  pleasantly  arranged   and 


The  Schoolroom  143 

equipped  schoolroom  under  pleasant  mental  conditions  does 
by  far  the  most  effective,  rapid  and  lasting  work.  The 
brain  and  bodily  organs  function  better  under  such  an  en- 
vironment and  the  mind  operates  better.  The  children  them- 
selves soon  notice  the  difference  and  learn  to  anticipate  the 
pleasant  teacher  and  the  pleasant  comfortable  schoolroom, 
while  the  effects  produced  upon  them  are  easily  more  lasting. 
The  cross,  scowling  unreasonable  and  inconsistent  teacher 
in  the  uninviting  schoolroom  soon  finds  an  uninviting  group 
of  pupils  in  the  room  doing  uninviting  work.  A  pleasant 
manner  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  of  great  value  in  the 
schoolroom  but  is  only  at  its  best  when  coupled  with  skill 
in  handling  the  subjects  taught  and  other  evidences  of  schol- 
arship in  general.  Pupils  like  to  feel  that  their  teacher 
possesses  knowledge,  that  kind  of  knowledge  which  is  power. 
Indeed,  we  are  all  admirers  of  people  who  possess  such  knowl- 
edge. Children  in  particular  are  worshippers  of  this  kind 
of  "  heroes."  Many  a  poor  teacher,  unpopular  and  inef- 
fective has  suddenly  found  himself  successful,  because  of 
some  accidental  evidence  of  skill  and  power.  This  does  not 
mean,  however,  that  teachers  are  to  make  "  exhibit  bees  " 
of  themselves  before  the  pupils,  nor  boast  to  them  of  their 
unexhibited  prowess.  It  is  always  safe  and  becoming  though 
for  teachers  to  do  whatever  it  becomes  their  manifest  duty 
to  do  and  to  do  that  not  onl}T  well  but  with  excellence.  Un- 
preparedness  in  any  emergency  is  a  serious  situation  for  any 
teacher  to  meet,  who  would  maintain  a  high  regard  and 
consequent  control  over  his  students.  Modern  pedagogics 
since  the  rise  of  physical  education  advocates  the  presence 
at,  supervision  of,  and  participation  in,  the  games  of  the 
pupils  on  the  playgrounds  by  the  teacher.  Here  discretion 
is  always  necessary  that  he  not  enter  into  those  games  in 
which  he  is  not  apt  or  in  which  he  has  only  poor  execution. 
The  moral  effect  of  the  effort  to  do  what  others  do  without 
effort  or  failure  in  the  attempt  is  far  reaching  in  its  effect 
upon  the  hold  the  teacher  may  have  upon  the  pupils  and  will 
detract  materially  from  his  future  supervision  over  and  con- 
trol of  them.  Pupils  are  all  quick  to  make  comparisons  and 
suggest  criticisms.     The  teacher  cannot  long  successfully 


144  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

endure  either  the  comparison  if  unfavorable  or  the  criticism 
if  adverse.  We  have  in  another  place  touched  upon  the  hy- 
giene of  the  school  and  grounds  and  much  was  said  there 
that  might  have  come  here. 

The  Effect  of  Health  and  Hygienic  Conditions  upon 
Supervision.  In  the  earlier  parts  of  this  chapter  we  dis- 
cussed the  effect  of  proper  heating,  lighting  and  ventila- 
tion, seating,  seats  and  school  movements  upon  time  con- 
servation in  the  schoolroom  and  upon  the  working  efficiency 
of  the  pupils.  The  subject  matter  of  this  chapter  would 
not  be  complete  without  a  word  or  two  about  the  effect 
of  the  general  healthfulness  of  the  pupils  and  the  hygienic 
conditions  of  the  schoolroom  and  school  processes  upon 
the  conservation  of  time  and  the  working  efficiency  of  the 
pupils.  The  immediate  responsiveness  of  the  mind  to 
ravages  of  sickness  and  disease  is  a  matter  too  well  known 
to  need  comment  here.  It  follows  as  an  obvious  fact  that  the 
slightest  evidence  of  unhygienic  conditions  in  the  schoolroom 
makes  its  presence  felt  immediately  in  the  capacity  of  the 
pupil  for  work.  Only,  therefore,  when  the  pupil  is  in  good 
health  and  the  schoolroom  is  in  prime  condition  is  it  possible 
to  secure  the  highest  degree  of  efficiency  in  the  play  of  edu- 
cative forces.  The  general  health  of  the  pupil  can  to  but 
little  extent  be  regulated  by  the  school.  We  therefore  pass 
it  by  for  the  hygienic  condition  of  the  schoolroom  which  the 
teacher  can  control  and  which  she  is  expected  to  regulate  and 
control,  at  least  in  the  essential  things  pertaining  to  health. 
Much  has  been  done  in  the  past  quarter  of  a  century  along 
this  line  and  the  underlying  principles  for  promoting  the 
health  and  healthy  working  conditions  in  the  schoolroom 
are  pretty  well  established  now.  As  usual  Germany  moved 
out  into  this  field  of  inquiry  and  America  soon  followed. 
Kotelman  in  Germany  and  Shaw  in  America  are  both  well 
recognized  authorities  in  this  field.  Experience  has  proved 
and  teachers  if  observing  will  find  that  erect  postures  in  sit- 
ting and  standing  will  serve  to  keep  the  pupils  attentive  and 
steadily  at  work.  Attempts  to  "  slide  down  "  in  the  seats 
and  stretch  out  the  legs  soon  bring  about  a  general  relaxa- 
tion in  mind  and  body  and  invite  laziness  and  indolence.     If 


The  Schoolroom  145 

this  were  the  only  harm  the  habit  could  be  passed  by  with  lit- 
tle comment.  But  this  is  the  least  of  the  evil.  Such  a  posi- 
tion forces  the  shoulders  forward,  presses  the  chest  in  and 
prevents  full  and  deep  breathing.  Besides  this  it  tends  to 
produce  spinal  curvature  bringing  on  oftentimes  later  in 
life  deformities  which  often  last  until  death.  It  also  en- 
forces improper  breathing,  short  compressed  inspirations 
which  by  bringing  small  quantities  of  air  into  the  lungs  and 
not  completely  filling  them  causes  the  remote  parts  of  the 
lungs  to  dry  up,  make  poor  blood,  impoverishes  the  whole 
body  and  thereby  reduces  the  bodily  power  of  resistance  to 
the  attack  of  disease.  It  also  reduces  the  bodily  energies 
required  by  the  pupil  for  the  performance  of  his  daily  school- 
room duties.  Slothfulness  and  sluggishness  of  body  thus 
produced  react  to  produce  a  like  state  of  mind.  Pupils 
should,  therefore,  at  all  times  be  forced  to  sit  straight  and 
erect,  with  heads  up,  shoulders  back  and  chests  out.  Con- 
stant drills  in  deep  breathing  if  made  to  accompany  these 
postures  will  add  much  to  the  general  good  effect.  Their 
feet  should  be  flat  on  the  floor  and  the  body  back  so  as  to  be 
supported  by  the  back  of  the  seat.  The  pupils  should  be  con- 
stantly drilled  in  all  of  these  matters  until  they  become  mat- 
ters of  habit  with  them.  Also  in  such  schoolroom  exercises 
as  drawing,  writing  and  desk  work  these  details  should  be 
insisted  upon.  Every  routine  of  the  schoolroom  should  be 
done  in  that  way  which  will  produce  the  least  strain  upon 
the  pupil  for  the  amount  of  labor  demanded.  But  these 
very  practices  themselves  become  a  source  of  fatigue  and  in 
time  will  bring  on  exhaustion.  To  overcome  them  a  brief 
recess  period  should  be  instituted  to  give  change  of  bodily 
posture  and  reinvigoration  by  motion  and  fresh  air.  Where 
a  recess  cannot  be  taken,  a  few  moments  of  gymnastics  in 
the  room  with  windows  open,  or  any  form  of  rest  and  relaxa- 
tion with  some  means  of  invigoration  included  will  serve  to 
bring  out  a  state  of  rest  with  a  recharge  of  the  storage  cells 
of  bodily  energy  for  the  remaining  time  of  the  session.  There 
should  not  only  be  a  stated  time  for  these  periods  of  relaxa- 
tion, but  there  should  be  sufficient  laxity  in  the  schoolroom 
routine  as  to  allow  the  teacher  at  any  time  at  his  own  dis- 


146  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

cretion  to  break  in  on  the  day's  routine,  when  deemed  neces- 
sary, to  take  sufficient  time  to  relieve  any  apparent  strain 
or  exhaustion  manifest  in  the  children.  The  time  thus  lost 
may  be  easily  made  up  by  the  increased  power  for  work 
gained  thereby.  However,  of  all  forms  of  relaxation  and 
recuperation  free  play  in  the  open  air  is  preferable  to  any 
form  of  activity  indoors. 

Personal  Cleanliness.  Because  of  the  close  relation  be- 
tween matters  of  personal  cleanliness  and  matters  of  health 
and  ventilation  as  well  as  the  problems  of  seating  and  the 
problem  of  supervision  of  the  schoolroom  a  word  or  two  about 
personal  cleanliness  among  pupils  will  not  be  amiss  here. 
Personal  cleanliness  is  always  essential  both  in  the  school- 
room and  out  of  it.  It  contributes  much  to  the  personal 
pride  and  resulting  ambition  of  pupils.  It  is  also  a  very 
prominent  phase  of  education  for  daily  practice  in  life. 
However,  it  is  made  a  matter  of  secondary  consideration 
because  experience  has  shown  that  it  is  more  or  less  a  delicate 
matter  for  teachers  to  take  up  such  matters  with  pupils, 
but  because  of  the  gravity  of  the  situation  teachers  should 
have  no  fear  in  taking  up  such  matters  when  the  situation 
demands.  They  should  be  handled  discreetly  and  tactfully 
but  handled  without  delay.  General  talks  are  best  in  the 
beginning  followed  by  personal  talks  with  the  pupils  and  at- 
tempts made  to  arouse  their  personal  pride;  this  failing,  it 
is  imperative  that  the  matter  be  taken  up  in  consultation 
with  parents.  If  still  there  is  no  response  the  only  course 
open  then  is  the  school  lavatory  or  wash  basin.  If  the  case 
reaches  this  stage  it  will  probably  be  one  of  discipline  and 
should  be  carefully  weighed  by  the  teacher  before  launching 
into  it.  Cleanliness  however,  in  the  schoolroom  must  be 
had  almost  at  any  cost.  Beside  being  unsightly  the  odor 
arising  from  the  clothes  of  such  pupils  is  often  disgusting 
and  even  sickening.  They  also  make  the  problem  of  ventila- 
tion difficult  and  complicate  the  matter  of  seating  for  ends 
of  better  supervision.  The  relation  of  dirt  to  disease  is  very 
well  known.  All  forms  of  disease  bearing  germs  and  infecting 
bacteria  and  bacilli  breed  lively  and  thrive  in  dirt.  From 
this  viewpoint   cleanliness  is  a  necessity  for  pupils   in  the 


The  Schoolroom  14?7 

schoolroom.  In  all  such  matters  the  teacher  should  lead 
off.  His  example  both  in  dress  and  habits  in  this  matter 
can  be  a  potent  one.  Bodily  odors  of  the  home,  sick  room, 
or  kitchen  besides  being  germ  laden  are  offensive  and  both 
contaminate  the  air  of  the  schoolroom,  and  besides  complicat- 
ing the  problems  of  ventilation  and  robbing  the  pupils  of  the 
fresh  air  needed  for  work,  overtax  the  organs  of  respiration 
and  produce  enervation  thereby  noticeably  reducing  the  work- 
ing coefficient  of  the  school.  One  of  the  chief  dangers  aris- 
ing from  the  lack  of  personal  cleanliness  is  infection  from 
contagious  diseases.  The  laws  of  the  health  authorities  in 
dealing  with  such  matters  should  be  strictly  enforced  by  the 
teacher  and  in  conjunction  with  the  strict  enforcement  there 
should  be  liberal  cooperation  between  the  school  authorities 
and  the  health  department.  As  has  been  said  above  it  would 
be  well  for  teachers  to  acquaint  themselves  with  the  general 
symptoms  of  the  more  common  contagions,  especially  of 
those  of  the  so-called  "  children's  diseases."  Whenever  in 
doubt  as  to  symptoms  of  contagious  diseases  or  even  suspi- 
cious of  their  presence  among  their  pupils  strict  adherence  to 
the  spirit  of  the  law  will  require  that  these  pupils  be  sent 
home  and  a  medical  examination  advised.  Where  cases  of 
quarantine  have  existed  the  children  from  these  homes  ac- 
cording to  the  best  expert  medical  advice  should  be  excluded 
from  school  until  the  full  period  of  germ  incubation  has 
passed  and  there  is  no  longer  danger  of  infection.  If  ex- 
posures to  contagions  have  accidently  occurred  it  will  be  safe 
to  take  the  necessary  precautions  to  avoid  infection  at  once. 
In  many  cases  due  to  the  opposition  and  relation  of  the 
parents  of  a  child  it  is  difficult  for  the  teacher  to  do  his 
whole  duty.  But  suffice  it  to  say  that  here  as  in  all  such 
cases  the  general  good  must  be  primary  and  the  teacher 
should  unflinchingly  follow  the  rules  and  regulations  laid 
down  in  such  matters  by  the  school  authorities  and  the  health 
department.  The  pride  and  wishes  of  the  few  should  not 
under  any  consideration  be  allowed  to  endanger  the  health 
of  the  school  and  the  community. 

The  question  of  school  supervision,  the  conservation  of 
time  and  energy  in  it  and  the  maintenance  of  a  high  standard 


148  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

of  excellence  in  its  working  efficiency  are  very  important 
and  may  contribute  much  to  his  success  or  failure  in  his 
work.  Prowess  and  ability  there  mean  his  ultimate  success 
or  failure  in  school  work  when  judged  by  true  standards. 
Much  has  been  written  and  spoken  upon  it.  It  is  still  a  live 
subject.  Nor  can  we  hope  to  say  much  upon  it  here.  What 
has  been  said  is  and  can  only  be  suggestive.  The  teacher 
may  take  these  few  hints  and  supplement  them  out  of  his  own 
experience.  For  after  all  it  is  out  of  resourcefulness  gained 
through  experience  that  makes  a  successful  teacher. 

REFERENCE  READING 

O'Shea's  "  Social  Development  of  Education."     Chap.  XIV. 

Arnold's    "School   and    Class    Management."     Chaps.    IV,   V,   XI,   VI, 

Sect.  V. 
Colgrove's  "  The  Teacher  and  the  School." 
Baldwin's  "School  Management  and  School  Methods."     Chaps.  X,  XI, 

XII,  XIII,  XIV,  XV. 
White's  "School  Management."     P.  48,  19. 
See  also  references  to  Chapter  on  Discipline. 


CHAPTER  VII 
DISCIPLINE 

In  the  economy  of  educational  processes  the  problems  of 
supervision,  government  and  discipline  are  very  closely  re- 
lated. Because  of  this  relation  in  treaties  on  education  usu- 
ally the  discussion  of  government  and  discipline  follow 
closely  on  that  of  supervision.  There  are,  however,  from 
the  viewpoint  of  education  some  points  of  difference  that 
it  is  very  essential  that  we  note  and  establish  clearly  here. 
For  confusion  in  the  meaning  of  tl,iese  terms  in  education 
often  leads  to  serious  errors  in  government  and  in  discipline 
that  brings  about  misunderstandings  between  pupils  and 
teachers  which  sometimes  a  whole  lifetime  does  not  succeed 
in  straightening  out.  Webster  says  the  aim  of  government 
is  "  to  direct  and  control  the  actions  or  conduct  of  one, 
either  by  established  laws  or  by  arbitrary  will."  Discipline 
he  says  aims  "  to  develop  by  instruction,  and  exercise ;  to 
bring  one  under  control  so  as  to  have  him  act  systematically, 
to  train  one  so  as  to  have  him  act  under  orders."  There  are 
here  you  see  so  far  as  school  processes  are  concerned  funda- 
mental differences.  Government  in  its  primary  sense  is  in- 
cidental to  discipline.  It  is  a  means  to  an  end,  while  dis- 
cipline is  an  end  in  itself.  Government  is  constraint  upon 
individual  actions,  while  discipline  is  conducive  to  freedom 
of  individual  actions.  Government  in  and  for  itself  exists 
everywhere  only  for  the  purpose  of  discipline.  Its  aim  there- 
fore is  purely  and  simply  to  control  the  action  and  con- 
duct of  the  governed.  Government  in  the  schoolroom  aims 
to  maintain  order  and  quiet  in  the  school,  to  enforce  respect 
and  to  act  as  a  check  upon  rebellious  and  recalcitrant  spirits 
until  they  can  be  brought  under  the  influence  and  control 
of  the  forces  of  discipline. 

There  will  be,  then,  if  these  basic  differences  between  gov- 

149 


150  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

ernment  and  discipline  are  fully  comprehended  an  elemental 
difference  between  the  punishments  inflicted  for  the  purpose 
of  government,  and  those  inflicted  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
cipline. They  provoke  very  different  attitudes  of  response 
on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  The  former  he  accepts  as  a  neces- 
sity under  the  existing  order  of  things,  the  other  as  some- 
thing due  in  consequence  of  certain  acts  of  commission  and 
omission.  Government  considers  merely  the  overt  act  as  a 
breach  of  the  school  order,  while  discipline  goes  behind 
the  act  and  considers  the  kind  and  quality  of  the  intent. 
Government  is  temporary  in  the  check  it  offers  but  final 
in  the  acts  it  considers.  Discipline,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
gradual  and  continuous  growing  in  strength  in  its  effective- 
ness as  a  spirit  for  it  is  engendered  and  fostered  in  the  re- 
cipient mind.  Thus  one  can  readily  see  that  while  there  is 
but  little  place  in  the  modern  conception  of  education  and 
educational  processes  for  government,  there  is  infinite  room 
in  them  for  discipline.  The  old  education  was  for  the  most 
part  governmental  in  nature.  The  new  education  being  es- 
sentially an  education  of  freedom  and  individualism  is  a 
reaction  against  so  much  of  government  in  the  schoolroom 
in  favor  of  more  discipline.  At  bottom  the  basis  of  the 
argument  against  the  mechanization  of  school  routine  and 
the  enforcing  of  government  from  without  in  favor  of  self 
government,  that  kind  of  government  which  is  characterized 
as  being  voluntary  and  from  within,  lies  in  the  opposition 
which  is  fundamental  between  government  and  discipline.  In 
the  present  content  of  the  concept  government  robs  the  in- 
dividual of  freedom  of  thought  and  individuality  of  action, 
makes  of  the  pupil  a  blind  automaton,  following  without 
question  or  after-thought  the  arbitrary  rule  of  those  in  au- 
thority. Such  a  one,  as  he  grows  into  manhood,  is  but  little 
fit  for  the  complex  duties  of  a  responsible  citizen  under 
democratic  forms  of  government  and  of  a  member  of  an 
advanced  or  enlightened  social  group.  It  is  discipline  and 
not  government  that  makes  the  highest  form  of  instruction 
possible,  though  the  contrary  opinion  attributing  such  power 
to  government  is  the  prevailing  one.  In  effect  government 
aims  at  temporary  reform  and  control,  while  discipline  aims 


Discipline  151 

at  the  permanent  effects  necessary  in  the  making  of  the  free 
and  independent  man.  Government  aims  to  produce  a  reac- 
tion that  is  temporary;  while  discipline  aims  to  produce  a 
relaxation  whose  effects  are  lasting  and  for  the  individual's 
improvement  in  moral  and  mental  good.  Whenever  punish- 
ment is  temporarily  coercive,  which  at  times  it  is  highly  es- 
sential that  it  be,  it  is  a  measure  of  government  and  not 
one  of  discipline.  As  such  the  punishment  will  not  generally 
go  deep  enough  to  do  the  desired  good.  It  will  only  reach  the 
feeling  of  the  individual  when  it  should  reach  his  thought. 
As  long  as  punishment  does  not  get  into  the  thought  life 
of  a  pupil  its  reformative  as  well  as  its  formative  effects 
are  at  low  ebb,  sometimes  practically  nil.  In  such  cases 
it  is  often  better  if  dispensed  with  entirely,  or  employed  only 
as  a  means  to  secure  a  foothold  on  the  pupil  for  the  applica- 
tion of  measures  of  discipline.  Much  of  the  punishment  of 
the  schoolroom  falls  upon  the  child  as  water  upon  a  duck's 
back,  simply  because  it  is  not  rational  punishment.  For 
the  child,  unless  special  efforts  are  made  to  show  him,  there 
is  neither  understanding  as  to  the  reason  of  the  existence 
of  the  rule,  nor  explanation  as  to  wherein  a  breach  of  the 
rule  should  be  followed  by  this  or  that  particular  kind  of  pun- 
ishment. Not  only  is  there  need  for  the  grounds  of  punish- 
ment to  be  made  known  to  the  pupil,  but  there  must  also  be 
seen  by  him  justification  of  it  in  his  action,  if  the  punish- 
ment is  to  have  any  disciplinary  value  to  the  pupil  at  all. 
Punishment  is  intended  to  react  upon  the  sphere  of  thought 
action  of  the  pupil,  to  affect  the  form  and  content  of  his 
mental  life.  In  order  to  do  this  it  should  get  into  the  midst 
of  the  elements  which  determine  human  action,  namely,  into 
his  interests,  emotions  and  desires.  When  it  does  not  do 
this  there  is  a  ready  return  to  former  mental  attitudes  and 
dispositions  and  the  same  forms  of  punishment  must  be  meted 
out  over  again.  This  repetition  in  time  brings  about  what 
is  known  as  "  callousness  "  in  the  attitude  of  the  pupil  and 
the  result  is,  that  by  such  a  method  of  punishment  one  soon 
has  on  his  hands  a  pupil  incapable  of  government  or  of  dis- 
cipline. Misguided  parents  and  teachers  hammer  at  chil- 
dren in  whom  these  false  standards  and  methods  of  punish- 


152  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

ment  have  set  up  this  attitude  of  sullen  indifference 
determined  to  "  conquer "  them,  when  in  reality  there  is 
nothing  in  the  child  to  be  conquered.  By  such  methods  not 
only  is  conquest  an  absurdity,  but  it  is  an  actual  impossi- 
bility. What  is  possible,  what  is  necessary  and  desirable 
is,  a  mutual  understanding  between  child  and  parent  or  be- 
tween pupil  and  teacher,  merely  a  mutual  understanding  of 
each  other's  attitude  and  motive.  Once  this  is  known,  it  is 
not  conquest  which  is  never  necessary  or  desirable  but  dis- 
cipline which  will  follow  with  ease  and  mutual  benefit  to 
each. 

An  appeal  to  the  feelings,  a  mere  stimulation  of  the 
emotions  to  more  intense  action,  which  is  what  arbitrary 
government  and  irrational  punishment  are,  has  two  tenden- 
cies. These  above  all  things  are  to  be  avoided  in  the  case 
of  the  young  and  growing.  In  the  first  place  they  both  tend 
to  deaden  aspiration  and  ambition  by  creating  loss  of  respect 
in  the  subject  for  himself  and  a  belittled  conception  of  self, 
coupled  with  a  belief  that  there  is  something  decidedly  wrong 
in  himself  that  seems  to  make  him  so  out  of  harmony  with 
the  established  order  of  things.  In  the  second  place,  if  he 
finally  emerges  from  the  difficulty  and  despair  into  which  he 
has  been  driven,  it  is  either  with  a  morbid  conception  of  his 
fellows  and  the  world  at  large,  or  else  he  has  imbibed  false 
ideas  of  the  real  essence  and  trend  of  human  action  and  gov- 
ernment. In  either  case  he  is  probably  lost  to  all  usefulness 
to  his  fellows  immediately  and  more  remotely  to  society  at 
large.  Sometimes  again  the  individual  mind  because  of  this 
manner  of  handling  it,  may  react  in  sullen  determination 
not  to  be  restrained  and  with  silence  and  cold  indifference 
forge  on  in  his  blind  reactionary  career  with  utter  disre- 
gard for  custom,  law  and  government  until  by  the  aid  of 
lucky  chance  he  may  stumble  again  back  into  the  true  paths 
of  government  and  discipline.  There  is  every  evidence  in 
experience  that  an  appeal  to  feeling  is  but  little  affective 
except  as  a  means  of  governing  temporarily.  Feelings,  psy- 
chologically considered,  are  evanescent  and  the  moment  the 
stimulus  that  aroused  them  is  lost  or  removed,  the  mental 
equilibrium  returns  to  its  old  state  of  action  or  inaction  un- 


Discipline  153 

less  there  is  something  in  its  nature  or  method  of  action  to 
get  within  the  sphere  of  mental  action  and  produce  thought 
activity  —  reflection  and  meditation  upon  the  whole  matter, 
the  whys  and  wherefors  of  it.  How  readily  even  parental 
control  loses  hold  and  how  quickly  the  force  of  parental  gov- 
ernment dissipates  when  within  the  home  the  recipient  of 
the  punishment  is  without  the  immediate  range  of  parental 
supervision,  goes  only  too  clearly  to  show  how  little  enduring 
effectiveness  is  inherent  in  government  in  and  of  itself,  and 
how  long  youth  can  be  subject  to  government  that  is  not 
disciplinary  with  its  being  of  little  or  no  practical  effect  upon 
him,  even  when  there  is  every  evidence  that  there  is  the  best 
of  intent  toward  him  on  the  part  of  the  governing  and  where 
also  there  is  a  good  attitude  toward  the  governing  on  the  part 
of  the  governed.  The  evident  cause  of  all  of  this  is  that 
the  motive  for  individual  action  has  not  been  developed  by 
those  in  authority  in  the  child  and  in  the  pupil.  That  is  to 
say,  such  punishments  have  been  merely  restrictive  of  in- 
dividual action,  governmental  in  nature,  while  the  best  re- 
sults in  attitude  and  motive  would  have  followed  such  punish- 
ments had  the\-  been  more  directive  of  this  tendency  to  in- 
dividual action,  that  is,  if  they  had  been  disciplinary  in 
nature.  In  the  same  way  and  for  the  same  reason  incentives, 
however  strong  they  may  otherwise  be,  when  applied  to  in- 
dividuals to  bring  forth  certain  lines  of  conduct  or  beget 
certain  kinds  of  action,  fail.  Not  having  gotten  into  the 
thought  life  of  the  individual,  because  they  have  been  prin- 
cipally restricted  in  his  affective  life,  their  efforts  die  as  soon 
as  the  state  of  feeling  they  aroused  in  consciousness  or  ac- 
companied into  consciousness  passes  away. 

The  great  problem  of  the  schoolroom  is  the  "  bad  "  boy, 
the  "  unruly  "  boy.  And  yet  if  properly  as  well  as  carefully 
handled  he  will  be  found  not  to  offer  such  formidable  resist- 
ance to  the  forces  of  government  and  discipline.  The  first 
step  in  the  process  of  control  and  discipline  is  to  learn  what, 
if  any,  are  the  motives  for  his  attitude  and  action.  Youth, 
we  all  know,  is  an  experimental  age.  The  boy  and  the  girl 
find  within  themselves  daily  newly  awakened  ideas,  newly 
created  desires  and  newly  manifested  powers.     All  of  these 


154  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

constantly  and  irrepressibly  seek  realization,  satisfaction  and 
expression.  Some  of  them,  of  course,  are  of  themselves 
worthy  and  should  be  allowed  continuation,  others  of  them, 
however,  will  need  some  slight  degree  of  modification  or  per- 
haps even  redirection  into  new  channels  before  they  will  be- 
come so  in  the  life  and  actions  of  the  child  and  pupil.  Often- 
times what  we  see  in  the  schoolroom  is  merely  the  child  testing 
his  newly  found  ideas,  following  his  desires  to  their  natural 
satisfaction  or  his  powers  to  their  natural  expression.  He 
is  merely  seeing  what  he  can  do  with  you  or  with  the  school 
and  its  routine.  This  the  teacher  must  decide.  In  such 
a  case  proper  government  will  restrict  him  to  what  consistent 
with  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  school,  he  may  be  allowed 
to  do,  while  discipline  will  win  him  over  to  the  mental  atti- 
tude, by  punishment,  if  necessary,  to  do  in  all  of  this  ir- 
repressible new  mental  life  what  he  is  allowed  to  do  in  the 
way  prescribed  and  to  restrain  the  rest  of  his  soul  life  for 
expression  elsewhere  and  under  different  conditions.  The 
road  to  such  a  one's  good  will  is  manifestly  not  through 
curbing  and  arbitrary  restraint  as  through  intelligent  and 
sympathetic  redirection.  The  desires  may  be  controlled 
and  redirected  to  objects  or  processes  in  the  schoolroom, 
while  his  powers  may  be  developed  by  being  applied  to  the 
performance  of  the  various  schoolroom  functions.  Strive 
to  recall  his  desire  from  the  things  foreign  and  perhaps  an- 
tagonistic to  the  processes  of  the  school  and  concentrate 
them  on  the  things  in  harmony  with  the  schoolroom  proc- 
esses. Do  this  in  the  first  place  by  putting  in  the  school- 
room the  means  of  satisfying  as  many  of  his  natural  desires 
as  are  possible,  as  well  as,  as  many  objects  for  expression 
of  his  powers  as  are  possible.  This  done,  all  impulses  away 
from  the  school  such  as  result  in  absence,  truancy  and  tardi- 
ness may  be  easily  controlled.  This  done,  whenever  punish- 
ment is  found  to  be  necessary,  the  child  can  be  readily 
brought  into  a  state  of  mind  where  he  will  recognize  the  ne- 
cessity or  justification  of  the  punishment  to  be  inflicted.  In 
such  a  school  discipline  will  place  teacher  and  pupil  on  bet- 
ter terms.  A  different  conception  of  the  teacher  and  of  all 
school  methods  will  take  place.     The  schoolroom  will  have  a 


Discipline  155 

new  meaning.  Instead  of  being  a  place  where  all  forms  of 
activity  are  inhibited  or  prohibited,  it  will  be  a  place  where 
desire  for  activity  will  find  myriads  of  new  ways  of  expres- 
sion and  of  the  realization  of  the  ideals  of  child  life. 
Thoughts  of  it  will  be  filled  with  joy,  pleasant  memories  and 
happy  anticipations.  Here  the  relation  between  pupil  and 
teacher  takes  on  more  nearly  the  form  of  intercourse  between 
individuals  in  daily  life.  The  teacher  instead  of  being  an 
unwelcome  task  master  and  ruler,  becomes  an  acquaintance, 
a  friend,  a  desired  companion.  From  this  point  on  the 
teacher  easily  has  the  reins  of  control  entirely  in  his  hand. 
He  may  discipline  by  personal  power  and  magnetism  or  by 
punishment.  But  if  success  is  to  come  out  of  all  of  this 
the  teacher  must  be  of  model  conduct  himself  and  of  high 
moral  stamina.  Not  only  this,  but  the  best  that  is  in  him 
must  be  always  on  the  surface.  In  other  words  discipline 
should  mould  by  its  influence  those  who  fall  under  its  sway. 
The  teacher  should  not  only  have  high  standards  of  personal 
conduct  but  these  must  show  themselves  in  the  reason  and 
justification  of  his  government  and  discipline,  if  the  work 
of  the  school  is  to  run  smoothly  and  a  high  degree  of  work- 
ing efficiency  is  to  be  maintained.  His  should  be  a  life  of 
stability  and  constancy  in  word  and  deed.  His  conduct 
should  be  at  all  times  an  arbitrary  and  fixed  constant,  wherein 
the  pupil  may  have  a  known  quantity  to  study,  emulate  and 
strive  to  attain  in  his  own  life.  When  there  is  a  fixed  stand- 
ard of  conduct,  approximation  toward  it  may  well  receive 
approval  and  retrogression  from  it  disapproval  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher.  All  pupils  desire  to  please,  and  most  espe- 
cially do  they  desire  to  please  their  teacher.  That  much  in 
them  is  human.  Desire  for  approbation  is  in  fact  common 
to  all  men.  It  is  a  basic  principle  in  regulating  social  con- 
duct to-day.  But  when  and  where  there  is  no  consistency 
in  the  conduct  which  is  to  serve  as  a  model,  when  there  is  a 
demand  for  a  constant  readjusting  and  reshaping  of  methods 
of  behavior  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  it  soon  causes  confusion 
in  standards  and  disappointment  leading  in  time  to  the  ulti- 
mate conclusion  that  after  all  conformity  to  any  such  in- 
constant and  inconsistent  model  of  conduct  is  impossible  of 


156  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

attainment.  Whereupon  the  child  soon  ceases  his  attempts 
to  please  and  win  approval  and  thereafter  the  means  and 
end  of  discipline  are  lost  upon  him. 

The  Nature  of  Discipline.  Many  teachers  find  it  impos- 
sible to  govern,  and  hence  to  discipline,  because  they  are  too 
far  off  from  the  pupil.  They  do  not  know  them.  They  have 
too  little  in  common  with  the  thought  realm  of  their  pupils 
to  get  next  to  them.  But  this  is  the  very  thing  that  is  es- 
sential to  successful  discipline.  A  common  ground  must 
exist  between  pupil  and  teacher  whereon  they  can  "  get  to- 
gether." This,  it  is  always  well  for  a  teacher  to  cultivate. 
No  opportunity  however  simple  or  insignificant  should  be 
lost  which  may  form  a  basis  for  the  beginning  of  such  un- 
derstanding and  resultingly  the  institution  of  discipline. 
Love  of  approbation  of  our  fellows  is  one  of  the  greatest 
social  and  socializing  forces  known  to  man.  In  the  hands 
of  a  resourceful  teacher  it  can  be  of  inestimable  value  as  a 
means  of  discipline.  There  are  some  natures  in  the  school- 
room whom  only  strong  forms  of  approbation  or  disappro- 
bation will  reach.  For  these  cases  the  teacher  must  prepare 
himself  through  a  long  gradual  process  of  study  and  analysis 
of  the  pupil.  The  best  means  to  this  end  is  a  conversant 
knowledge  of  the  emotions  and  wishes  of  the  pupil.  To  be 
properly  and  fairly  dealt  with  the  pupil  must  be  thoroughly 
understood.  The  next  step  to  understanding  a  pupil  is  to 
have  the  disposition  to  respect  carefully  all  of  his  wishes 
and  where  possible  to  satisfy  those  of  his  desires  that  are 
consistent  with  good  order  and  work  in  the  schoolroom.  Pro- 
hibitions to  childish  requests  and  expressed  desires  should 
be  the  rarity  instead  of  the  commonplace.  All  childish 
tendencies,  wishes  and  desires  if  necessary  to  be  denied  can 
be  best  handled  if  the  reason  for  the  refusal  be  freely,  fully 
and  candidly  given.  It  is  best  always  to  let  the  pupils  know 
you  understand  both  what  they  wish  and  why  they  wish  it, 
and  assure  them  that  you  would,  if  it  were  possible  or  best, 
be  glad  to  see  them  attain  their  desire.  Candor  in  such 
matters  is  always  appreciated.  There  may,  of  course,  at 
any  time  in  administration  of  such  matters  arise  justifiable 
reasons  for  withholding  this  explanation,  or  even  peremp- 


Discipline  157 

torily  refusing  it.  This  much  the  situation  and  the  teacher 
must  determine.  In  all  of  this  true  standards  as  has  been 
said  should  be  established,  punishment  meted  out  accordingly, 
government  instituted  and  discipline  introduced  on  this 
basis. 

Because  of  the  need  of  simplicity  in  all  things  for  the  child 
mind,  all  systems  of  discipline  intended  should  be  reduced 
to  their  simplest  form.  As  the  child  mind  grows  in  power 
of  thought  and  comprehension  these  systems  may  become 
more  extended.  But  under  all  conditions  and  for  all  classes 
the  simpler  they  are  the  better.  Again  methods  of  dis- 
cipline should  neither  be  mechanical  nor  "  ironclad."  Dis- 
cipline as  has  been  said  appeals  to  the  mind  and  seeks  the 
consent  of  the  mind;  it  is  evident  then  from  this  that  no 
mechanism  in  discipline  can  be  effective.  Individual  cases 
must  be  handled  as  such.  What  the  child  needs  in  matters 
of  discipline  is  to  learn  the  natural  relation  he  bears  to  his 
physical  environment  and  to  the  state  and  society.  Those 
of  the  school  should  be  in  harmony  with  all  of  these.  Every 
act  of  the  teacher  must  show  evidence  of  justification  in 
this  general  S3rstem  if  it  is  to  carry  with  it  weight  with 
even  moderate  hope  of  success  in  application  and  then  every 
move  that  the  teacher  makes  of  disciplinary  nature  should 
be  intelligently  directed  toward  the  accomplishment  of  the 
purpose  of  the  general  scheme  of  his  discipline.  To  do  this 
will  require  on  his  part  at  all  times  a  judicious  exercise  of 
much  patience,  gentleness  and  care.  He  who  would  be  a 
good  disciplinarian  must  not  allow  himself  to  be  rash.  Pa- 
tience is  a  prime  requisite  in  the  attainment  of  discipline  in 
the  schoolroom.  The  new  pupil  is  oftentimes  a  mystery  to 
the  teacher  both  in  the  matter  of  physical  habits  and  mental 
moods  and  consequently  in  the  kind  of  treatment  to  which 
he  will  best  respond.  This,  the  teacher  can  learn  only  after 
a  more  or  less  long  period  of  study  and  observation  in  all 
of  the  various  relations  of  the  schoolroom  routine.  With  the 
teacher  and  the  pupil  each  is  an  experiment  with  the  other, 
who  must  be  carefully  tried  out.  The  teacher  to  discover 
what  are  the  best  and  most  available  means  of  reaching  the 
pupil  and  successfully  disciplining  him  and  preparing  him 


158  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

for  his  experiences  in  life ;  the  pupil  to  find  what  the  teacher 
expects  of  him  and  how  best  he  may  do  what  is  expected,  or 
in  some  few  cases  how  he  may  resist  or  avoid  doing  what  is 
expected  of  him.  Thus  we  see  that  to  every  act  of  the 
teacher  there  is  a  full  reaction.  Now  teachers  often  notice 
only  the  action  leaving  the  reaction  to  take  care  of  itself. 
In  which  case  the  reaction  sometimes  returns  to  overwhelm 
the  teacher  and  may  prove  his  entire  undoing.  In  matters 
of  discipline  it  often  takes  a  veritable  genius  and  even  at 
that  some  classes  of  pupils  will  tax  a  teacher's  powers  to  the 
utmost.  To  be  successful  in  both  action  and  reaction  the 
resources  of  the  disciplinarian  must  flow  from  a  perennial 
fountain,  namely,  a  wide-awake  sympathetic  mind.  School- 
room discipline  will  brook  no  repetition  of  methods  in  its 
system  of  application,  the  spring  must  bring  forth  ever 
fresh  and  living  methods.  The  very  fact  that  punishments 
or  methods  of  discipline  can  be  anticipated  robs  them  of  their 
force.     Here  truly  variety  will  be  the  spice  of  life. 

Character  and  Discipline.  Another  thing  that  must  be 
considered  in  administering  discipline  is  the  kind  of  character 
with  which  one  is  dealing  or  is  to  deal.  From  this  viewpoint 
of  discipline,  the  characters  met  are  either  stable  or  unstable. 
Character  may  have  become  stable  either  from  earlier  train- 
ing, or  age,  or  both.  Characters  that  are  stable  present 
much  the  more  difficult  problem  in  cases  of  discipline.  Yet 
when  understood  the  stable  charactered  pupil  is  much  more 
susceptible  to  discipline  than  the  unstable  charactered.  You 
can  know  him.  There  is  a  constancy  and  consistency  in  his 
actions  and  reactions  that  may  be  expected  at  all  times  in 
the  application  of  disciplinary  methods  to  him.  While  with 
the  pupil  of  unstable  character  there  is  never  anything 
definite  to  be  expected  in  his  reactions,  to-day  it  may  be  in 
one  way  and  to-morrow  in  another.  But  the  most  serious 
side  of  the  problem  with  the  unstable  character  is  that  he 
is  never  even  constant  and  consistent  in  the  instability.  Even 
his  instability  cannot  be  depended  on  to  be  lasting.  To-day 
you  get  him  just  so  far  in  discipline  and  begin  to  hope  that 
you  are  accomplishing  something  and  to-morrow  when  your 
hopes  are  highest  and  you  begin  to  feel  assured  of  results, 


Discipline  159 

the  relaxation  comes,  all  that  was  gained  is  lost  and  you  must 
begin  all  over  again  with  him.  All  of  this  is  different  with 
the  stable  in  character.  Whenever  you  do  get  the  desired 
reactions  they  are  lasting  and  you  can  always  notice  progress 
and  have  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  with  what  degrees  of 
success  your  efforts  are  attended. 

Conditions  Incidental  to  Discipline.  Looking  at  disci- 
pline from  another  viewpoint  it  is  evident  that  it  must  change 
with  the  age,  home  training  and  environment  of  the  pupils. 
Disciplinary  methods  that  are  successful  at  one  time  will 
utterly  fail  if  applied  at  another  time  to  the  same  pupil. 
Pupils  of  different  classes  and  ages  require  different  methods 
to  reach  them,  while  their  locality,  home  surroundings 
and  social  station,  etc.  will  also  make  a  difference  in  the 
kinds  of  methods  that  will  bring  about  effective  results.  For 
that  reason  the  teacher  in  a  city  who  met  with  great  success 
as  a  disciplinarian  in  a  city  school  may  fail  completely  in  a 
country  school  and  in  a  mining  or  oil  country ;  he  may  suc- 
ceed with  the  pupils  of  one  social  class  or  home  surrounding 
and  training  and  fail  with  those  of  another.  Too,  funda- 
mental differences  in  racial  temperaments  come  in  for  con- 
sideration in  discipline  and  disciplinary  methods.  The  Ital- 
ian, the  German,  the  Russian,  the  Jew,  etc.,  all  will  come  in 
for  consideration  peculiar  to  their  nationality  and  general 
national  habits  and  traits  traceable  to  their  nervous  structure 
and  mental  attitude.  This  point  is  worthy  of  consideration 
in  the  schools  in  the  foreign  and  congested  sections  of  our 
large  cities. 

The  health  of  pupils,  too,  is  a  very  essential  consideration 
in  administering  discipline.  In  sickness  and  disease  more  so 
than  at  any  other  time  patience  and  gentleness  are  required 
as  well  as  attention  to  the  nature  of  the  method  employed. 
The  nervous  tension  of  children  is  very  different  in  health 
from  that  in  disease.  In  general  the  reaction  to  disciplinary 
stimuli  in  sickness  is  greater  than  in  health  and  the  states 
produced  thereby  are  more  lasting.  The  feeling  aroused  dur- 
ing the  one  is  more  intense  than  that  aroused  during  the  other 
and  the  time  of  their  endurance  is  longer.  Because  of  this 
high  tension  nervously  the  possiblity  of  striking  the  wrong 


160  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

cord  is  greater  as  is  the  resulting  attitude  induced.  The 
thought  activity  is  more  intense  and  the  emotion,  desires  and 
wishes  more  fickle.  That  there  is  need  here  of  care  and  pa- 
tience as  well  as  kindliness  and  gentleness  even  more  than  at 
any  other  time  goes  without  saying.  It  follows,  therefore, 
that  mistakes  at  such  times  in  matters  of  discipline  will  be  more 
costly  than  at  any  other  time.  The  remedying  and  removal 
of  their  effects  is  also  more  difficult.  Many  a  teacher  has  lost 
complete  disciplinary  and  resultingly  complete  governmental 
control  of  a  pupil  during  some  period  of  illness  or  physical 
derangement,  which  they  have  never  succeeded  in  regaining. 
The  kind  of  treatment  needed  during  the  period  because  of 
the  new  kind  of  reactions  was  not  forthcoming  because  the 
methods  necessary  to  produce  them  were  not  applied.  Very 
often,  too,  under  like  conditions  the  effects  produced  in  a 
pupil  are  lasting  and  the  individual  persists  in  the  new  atti- 
tude, new  reactions  being  heaped  upon  the  old  until  all  hope 
of  again  returning  to  the  old  relation  is  lost  and  we  have  a 
new  example  of  the  bad  or  unruly  pupil. 

The  Aim  of  Discipline.  From  an  educational  viewpoint 
the  purpose  of  government  is  to  make  possible  discipline.  In 
general  discipline  aims  to  form  character, —  here  student 
character.  In  the  first  place  it  should  place  the  student  in 
the  proper  frame  of  mind  to  receive  knowledge.  This  knowl- 
edge should  be  presented  in  such  a  way  as  to  create  an  inter- 
est in  the  knowledge  either  for  a  near  or  remote  end,  that 
should  have  been  conceived  vividly  and  should  have  awakened 
an  intense  desire  in  the  pupil  for  its  attainment.  In  cases 
where  the  ends  in  life  for  which  this  knowledge  is  desired  are 
more  or  less  remote  the  intermediate  means  by  which  the  more 
distant  end  is  reached  must  change  from  time  to  time  to  keep 
up  interest.  Here  lies  the  difficulty  of  the  task.  But  if  it  is 
successfully  done,  discipline  will  be  maintained  throughout  all 
of  the  mental  and  physical  changes  in  life  incident  to  growth 
and  development.  As  this  goes  on  the  demand  for  the  open 
application  of  discipline  to  the  subject  will  steadily  grow  less. 
Finally  the  great  end  of  education  will  be  established.  The 
pupil  will  have  become  a  well  developed  character  with  good 
powers  of  self  direction  along  lines  where  there  are  well- 


Discipline  161 

formed  desires.  -  At  the  same  time  understanding  the  nature 
of  processes  in  the  activities  of  life  and  the  tendencies  of  the 
various  means  as  well  as  their  efficiency  for  attaining  results, 
he  will  be  able  to  develop  any  new  desire  and  judge  of  its  value 
in  the  general  system  of  desires.  At  this  point  he  will  .have 
attained  the  height  at  which  school  processes  and  school  dis- 
cipline aim  and  may  be  safety  trusted  in  the  world  to  push 
out  along  any  line  of  endeavor  that  may  have  appealed  to 
him,  competent  to  direct  his  action  and  restrain  his  desires 
within  the  range  of  the  best  judgments  of  the  conservative 
members  of  the  state  and  of  society.  The  aim  of  the  dis- 
ciplinary processes  of  the  schoolroom  and  of  the  school  is 
successfully  at  end. 

Discipline  in  Practice.  Apart  from  this  theory  of  disci- 
pline and  government  in  the  schoolroom  there  is  a  practical 
side  which  must  be  carefully  considered  and  used  under  the 
guiding  theory  of  the  principle,  if  the  school  routine  itself  is 
to  be  successful  and  the  primary  ends  for  which  it  exists  are 
to  be  conserved.  Comparatively  speaking  government  aims 
to  maintain  order  in  a  schoolroom,  discipline  to  bring  about 
successful  work.  They  are  mutually  effective  and  reactive. 
Group  action  in  school  routine  has  its  advantages  as  well  as 
its  disadvantages,  though  the  latter  are  necessary  in  our  sys- 
tem of  education.  The  chief  demand  of  advanced  civilization 
and  democratic  governmental  institutions  is  self-assertiveness 
and  individualism.  Both  of  these  must  of  necessity  suffer  in 
mass  education.  For  the  welfare  and  progress  of  the  class 
as  a  whole  must  be  made  superior  to  that  of  the  individual. 
The  result  is  that  discipline  will  tend  to  inhibit  those  individ- 
ualistic impulses,  and  to  subordinate  the  egoistic  activities  to 
the  preservation  of  conditions  favorable  to  the  needed  concen- 
tration of  attention  by  the  class  in  its  entirety  which  endan- 
gers one  of  the  chief  mental  attitudes  which  the  discipline  of 
the  school  is  supposed  to  foster.  However,  this  is  only  one 
of  the  draw-backs  of  group  life  and  aggregate  action.  It  is 
the  basic  principle  of  civilized  society  and  must  be  accepted  as 
necessary  in  the  school  that  the  best  attempt  be  made  to  fos- 
ter individualism  which  these  more  imperative  demands  on 
group  life  will  permit,     Group  education  is  at  its  best  only 


162  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

when  it  is  acquired  through  the  maintenance  of  the  highest 
degree  of  working  efficiency  and  the  greatest  possible  conser- 
vation of  time  and  energy.  These  are  presumed  to  be  at- 
tained through  discipline  and  government  in  the  school. 
Favorable  working  conditions  to  these  ends  must  be  preserved 
at  all  times.  This  is  of  the  highest  import  in  large  classes, 
where  daily  accumulated  waste  of  time  may  seriously  hamper 
the  work  of  the  class  room. 

The  Opening  Day.  The  time  to  begin  government  and 
discipline  in  the  schoolroom  is  on  the  first  day  of  school  and 
at  the  very  opening.  This  is  the  psychological  moment  in 
the  process  of  discipline.  At  this  time  everything  is  strategic 
and  favors  good  discipline.  The  teacher  is  fresh  and  vigor- 
ous, full  of  plans  and  hopes  and  ready  to  tackle  any  problem 
of  school  discipline  that  may  arise.  On  the  other  hand  the 
pupils  are  there  full  of  good  intentions  and  good  resolves,  all 
determined  to  behave,  study  and  do  well  in  their  schoolwork. 
Besides  this  the  teacher  is  probably  new  to  them  and  the  work 
also,  each  carrying  with  it  all  of  the  native  attraction  attend- 
ant upon  that  which  is  novel.  For  a  good  measure  of  success 
it  is  only  necessary  that  the  teacher  make  full  capital  out  of 
these  natural  conditions  favorable  to  good  government  from 
the  beginning.  From  the  very  first  the  teacher  should  insist 
upon  all  work  being  carried  out  in  detail  and  all  of  the  routine 
work  of  opening  should  be  gotten  out  of  the  way  as  speedily 
as  possible  and  the  whole  school  started  out  upon  the  regular 
routine  of  the  year's  work.  The  attitude  of  the  pupil  is  one 
of  high  tension  and  very  unstable  equilibrium,  but  it  tends 
easily  to  become  stable,  care  must  be  exercised  only  to  the 
end  that  it  settle  in  the  right  direction.  If  the  work  of  clas- 
sifying and  grading  and  other  preliminary  work  is  extended 
over  too  much  time  and  the  pupils  allowed  to  play  and  waste 
the  school  time,  the  equilibrium  will  settle  in  that  direction 
and  may  remain  there  the  balance  of  the  school  year,  or  if 
changed  at  all  for  the  better  it  will  only  be  done  by  the  great- 
est labor  and  effort  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  only  then 
by  gaining  the  ill-will  or  loss  of  respect  of  some  of  the  pupils, 
or  perhaps  in  both.  Rigorous  work  should  be  the  order  from 
the  moment  of  opening.     The  teacher  should,  on  previous 


Discipline  163 

occasions,  have  acquainted  himself  with  all  of  the  routine 
necessary  and  should  determine  his  method  of  conducting  his 
preliminary  exercises  beforehand,  having  everything  previ- 
ously in  readiness  for  them.  From  the  first  the  teacher 
should  show  that  he  has  anticipated  and  is  prepared  for 
every  possible  demand  and  at  all  times  is  complete  master  of 
the  situation  and  of  himself.  Any  evidence  of  unprepared- 
ness  or  inability  to  meet  any  emergency  incident  to  the  open- 
ing of  school  or  thereafter  is  likely  to  have  serious  effects 
upon  the  relation  of  the  teacher  with  his  pupils  and  result- 
ingly  of  his  governmental  and  disciplinary  powers.  There 
should  be  no  confusion  in  issuing  orders,  nor  should  there 
be  too  frequent  need  of  retracting  orders  when  once  given, 
because  they  are  wrong  or  incapable  of  successful  accomplish- 
ment as  physically  impossible  or  impracticable.  All  of  this 
should  as  far  as  possible  be  determined  before  the  order  is 
issued.  He  should  understand  the  arrangement  of  the  room 
and  the  control  of  its  equipment  and  appurtenances  and  those 
of  the  building  and  grounds.  Especially  should  he  have 
mastered  the  methods  of  operating  the  system  of  heating 
and  ventilation,  both  for  reasons  of  health  as  well  as  for  those 
of  discipline.  It  is  always  unfortunate  for  a  teacher  new  or 
old  to  be  forced  in  the  presence  of  the  school  to  admit  in- 
ability to  perform  any  given  act  and  be  compelled  to  request 
the  help  of  a  pupil,  send  for  the  janitor  or  call  in  the  aid  of 
the  principal,  the  school  commissioner  or  one  of  the  directors. 
This  applies  chiefly  to  those  who  would  be  expected  naturally 
to  possess  the  physical  strength  to  do  these  things.  In  the 
case  of  women  teachers,  however,  the  cautions  necessary  for 
one  who  knows  well  the  limits  of  her  strength  is  always  bet- 
ter followed.  For  even  with  them  evidences  of  failure  have 
their  effects  in  matters  of  discipline  even  though  they  be  less 
than  in  the  case  of  men. 

Whatever  of  mechanical  routine  it  is  expected  to  employ 
in  school  processes  such  as  movements  about  the  room,  to 
and  from  the  board  and  recitation  seats,  collecting  and  dis- 
tributing wraps,  and  marching  to  and  from  the  room,  it  is 
better  to  have  them  carefully  thought  out  and  instituted 
from  the  start.     Once  instituted  they  should  be  changed  as 


164  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

little  as  possible,  except  where  there  is  evident  some  glaring 
defect  in  them.  In  this  case  it  will  be  justifiable  to  change 
them  immediately.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  it  will 
be  found  to  be  best  to  let  plans  once  promulgated  even 
though  not  entirely  satisfactory  run  for  a  reasonable  length 
of  time  or  until  a  convenient  opportunity  offers  itself  for 
instituting  a  change  in  the  order  that  the  teacher  may  not  put 
himself  in  a  position  of  not  knowing  what  is  best  or  of  not 
understanding  himself,  or,  what  is  immeasurably  worse,  of 
being  unstable  in  his  views  and  methods. 

As  for  the  work  of  the  first  day  outside  of  the  duty  of 
enrolling  and  classifying,  which  should  be  done  as  rapidly 
as  due  regard  for  accuracy  will  permit,  the  regular  work  of 
the  school  day  when  the  school  is  fully  under  way  should 
be  done  from  the  first.  Here  too,  full  possession  of  all  in- 
formation necessar}^  to  the  proper  and  complete  performance 
of  this  duty  will  be  found  to  give  the  best  results  from  the 
viewpoint  of  work  and  discipline.  Ease  and  rapidity  of 
work  will  be  secured  from  the  outset  if  the  teacher  is  also 
advised  as  to  the  relation  of  the  work  required  in  the  room 
whether  there  be  several  or  only  one  grade  in  the  room  and  the 
relation  of  this  work  to  the  grade  or  grades  immediately  be- 
low it  and  those  immediately  above  it.  The  basis  of  passing 
pupils  and  if  possible  the  record  of  the  pupils  in  the  pre- 
ceding year's  work  would  greatly  aid  in  this  work.  Where 
these  are  impossible  the  local  course  of  study  or  the  general 
county  or  state  course  of  study  should  be  available  and 
should  be  used  as  a  basis  of  outlining  the  work  and  classi- 
fying the  various  pupils.  Apart  from  this  every  teacher 
would  find  it  of  great  help  to  acquaint  himself  with  graded 
courses  of  study  for  various  states  and  be  able  to  model 
for  himself  a  complete  course,  not  only  through  the  grade 
school,  but  through  the  high  school  as  well.  This  will  place 
the  individual  teacher  in  his  work  upon  an  independent  basis 
that  will  give  him  advantages  in  emergencies  or  difficulties 
hardly  to  be  appreciated  by  the  novice  and  unprepared. 
The  attendance  of  teachers  should  be  prompt  at  all  times,  and 
constant.  Nothing  has  the  demoralizing  effects  upon  a 
school  as  do  habits  of  tardiness  or  inconstancy  in  attend- 


Discipline  165 

ance  upon  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Fortunately  most  ol 
these  things  are  controlled  financially  by  the  school  com- 
missioners and  directors,  but  in  country  districts  where 
supervision  is  only  occasional  the  habit  is  often  formed  of 
being  late  and  runs  often  for  a  considerable  time  doing  its 
demoralizing  work  before  it  becomes  known  and  is  stopped. 
The  teacher  should  endeavor  to  precede  the  children  to  the 
school  and  have  everything  in  readiness  for  their  reception 
when  they  arrive.  In  city  schools  and  sometimes  elsewhere 
it  is  impossible  for  the  pupils  to  assemble  in  the  assembly 
room  and  later  pass  to  the  school  rooms.  Where  possible 
this  is  best.  When  the  weather  permits  the  pupils  should 
be  left  out  to  play  until  the  proper  time  for  them  to  as- 
semble, at  which  time  they  should  assemble  according  to 
prescribed  routine  and  in  order.  The  teacher  should  by  all 
means  be  in  his  position  and  receive  the  pupils.  Greet  them 
pleasantly  but  do  not  assume  any  manners  with  them  that 
you  do  not  intend  always  to  maintain.  Friendly  but  re- 
spectful regard  is  always  best.  Nothing  that  will  not  be 
tolerated  later  in  the  line  of  conduct  or  attitude  should  be 
tolerated  the  first  day  and  very  little  before  or  after  school, 
that  will  not  be  tolerated  during  school.  Everything  in  the 
school  should  have  an  air  of  business  and  work  from  the 
start.  An  understanding  that  is  to  be  maintained  through- 
out is  to  be  had  at  once  upon  the  pupil  filing  into  the  school- 
room. 

The  Attitude  of  Outsiders  in  Discipline.  In  effectively  ap- 
plying these  external  or  mechanical  methods  there  are  cer- 
tain favorable  conditions  which  may  at  times  prove  to  be 
almost  necessary.  Chief  of  these  is  that  there  must  be 
practical  working  relations  existing  between  the  teacher 
and  those  charged  by  law  or  by  nature  with  the  responsibility 
of  the  proper  rearing,  training  and  education  of  the  pupils. 
I  mean  here  the  parents  or  guardian  of  the  children  on  the 
one  side  and  the  school  commissioners,  school  board,  prin- 
cipal and  superintendent,  both  county  and  city,  on  the 
other.  Between  these,  for  the  sake  of  good  work,  genial 
relations  are  ever  a  prime  requisite.  Little  as  these  may 
think,  especially  the  parents,  they  can  ruin  the  fitness  of 


166  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

their  children  for  the  schoolroom  and  instill  into  them  lessons 
of  disrespect  for  law  and  order  and  those  charged  with  the 
responsibility  of  administering  it  that  may  sometimes  follow 
them  throughout  life,  and  in  some  cases  bring  them  behind 
the  prison  walls  or  even  down  to  the  hangman's  noose. 
Certain  it  is  that  the  respect  and  confidence  of  the  pupil  for 
the  teacher  are  readily  destroyed  by  an  attitude  discounte- 
nancing or  discrediting  the  acts  of  teachers  before  children. 
To  begin  with  there  should  under  all  circumstances  always  be 
perfect  confidence  and  good  will  existing  between  parents 
and  teachers.  But  since  both  are  human  and  filled  each  with 
his  share  of  human  weakness,  and  imperfections,  this  is 
ostensibly  impossible  at  all  times.  This  fact,  however,  may 
be  reduced  to  a  minimum  of  evil  effects,  if  both  teacher  and 
parents  will  endeaver  to  make  consideration  for  the  other. 
Parents  should  never  by  word  or  manner  let  the  child  know 
that  there  is  the  least  lack  of  confidence  or  ill-will  existing 
between  them  and  the  teacher.  Nor  should  the  teacher 
criticize  the  parents  before  the  pupil  or  pupils.  The  child 
is  quick  to  detect  any  evidence  of  lack  of  friendly  relations 
or  lack  of  confidence  and  equally  quick  to  take  advantage  of 
it  for  personal  ends.  Should  the  existence  of  bad  feeling 
or  a  feeling  of  incompetence  become  known  to  the  pupils, 
both  the  teacher,  his  power  of  government  and  discipline  will 
be  seriously  disabled  thereby,  if  not  entirely  broken  down, 
and  the  amount  and  quality  of  instruction  under  such  con- 
ditions fall  to  a  minimum. 

Teachers  should  be  appointed  purely  for  fitness  and  com- 
petency. The  community  should  know  that  no  other  mo- 
tive existed  in  the  appointment.  They  should  also  know 
that  there  is  no  method,  that  they  can  employ  that  will  en- 
able them  to  retain  or  obtain  their  friends  or  relations  as 
teachers.  Much  discontent  and  open  effort  to  break  down 
the  power  and  influence  a  teacher  both  in  the  community  and 
schoolroom  is  engendered  and  willfully  nourished  with  the 
hope  that  a  friend  or  relative  may  profit  by  the  removal  of 
the  teacher.  If  perfect  candor  and  honesty  is  employed 
in  obtaining  a  teacher  and  he  is  elected  and  retained  on  a 
basis  of  merit  much  of  the  evils  of  lack  of  cooperation  on  the 


Discipline  167 

part  of  the  parents  and  community  will  disappear  of  their 
own  accord.  This  situation  is  bad  enough,  but  becomes 
worse  when  the  knowledge  that  other  forces  than  competency 
and  fitness  may  be  used  to  make  vacant  and  fill  the  positions 
of  teachers  is  employed  by  some,  either  to  bully  or  coerce 
or  wreak  vengeance  upon  a  teacher  for  private  or  personal 
reasons,  which  are  often  low  and  degrading  to  say  nothing 
of  the  selfishness  that  generally  is  in  them.  When  this  state 
of  things  arises  the  school  is  better  abolished  if  the  condi- 
tion is  not  removed.  It  is  a  source  of  regret  to  admit  that 
often  such  situations  as  these  do  arise  and  the  innocent  as 
well  as  the  guilty  suffer  together,  while  the  children  whose 
ideas  and  standards  are  not  fully  formed  get  perverted 
ideas  that  make  of  them  unfit  citizens  and  unfit  members  of 
society.  Let  it  be  said,  however,  in  this  same  connection 
that  no  teacher  should  at  any  time  allow  such  a  state  of 
things  to  cause  him  to  desert  his  high  standard  of  living  and 
acting,  nor  in  any  way  to  yield  to  any  attempted  pressure 
that  is  either  belittling  or  compromising.  Fortunately  in 
such  matters  things  have  improved  considerably  and  are 
continuing  to  improve  and  the  teachers  are  mostly  given 
hearty  cooperation  by  the  superintendent,  boards,  and  com- 
missioners of  education.  Too,  the  dissemination  of  litera- 
ture upon  the  relation  of  the  teacher  to  those  in  authority 
over  him  has  caused  a  more  perfect  understanding  of  the 
rights  and  privileges  of  each  and  the  bad  effects  resulting 
from  an  infringement  of  either  upon  the  rights  of  the  other. 
In  some  cases  however  the  local  rights  of  school  boards  and 
superintendents  are  overestimated  and  then  the  wrong  kind 
of  interference  follows.  The  right  to  employ  teachers,  to 
prescribe  courses  of  study  and  instruction  and  exercise  su- 
pervisory authority  over  schools  does  not  mean  that  those 
so  charged  with  responsibility  are  either  to  so  circumscribe 
or  hamper  teachers  that  their  freedom  of  action  is  impaired 
or  their  power  of  instruction  and  administering  government 
and  proper  discipline  curtailed.  The  teaching  powers  and 
functions  as  well  as  those  of  government  and  discipline  must 
of  necessity  belong  to  the  teacher.  To  deprive  him  of  them 
or  interfere  with  him  in  exercising  them  is  to  do  untold  harm 


168  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

to  the  processes  of  the  school.  Prohibitive  rules  and  re- 
strictive or  regulative  advice  should  only  be  in  a  general 
manner  and  according  to  principles  well  known  and  well  es- 
tablished. The  details  of  these  in  the  practical  working  of 
the  schoolroom  routine,  experience  has  taught,  are  infinitely 
better  if  left  with  the  teacher.  Of  course,  supervision  is 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  and  overcoming  flagrant 
abuses  or  degrading  and  damaging  practices,  and  where 
found  in  use  they  should  be  corrected  unhesitatingly,  keep- 
ing in  mind  always  the  proper  place  and  time  for  such  things. 
It  is  a  human  error  common  to  many  not  to  know  how  to 
use  vested  authority.  In  school  matters  this  fault  is  not 
absent  from  men.  But  whenever  those  in  authority  correct 
a  teacher  before  his  class,  or  show  by  any  outward  sign  that 
there  is  fault  or  dissatisfaction  found  with  a  teacher's  work 
or  methods,  trouble  has  been  started  that  may  cause  untold 
difficulties  for  the  teacher  in  government  and  discipline,  that 
may  eventually  drive  him  from  the  community  and  the  pro- 
fession and  may  ruin  the  school  for  years  to  come. 

Where  the  views  of  those  in  authority  as  to  methods  dif- 
fer, or  where  there  is  evidence  of  ignorance  of,  or  disregard 
for,  the  commonest  principles  of  teaching  and  discipline  the 
best  results  are  known  to  follow  always  where  the  facts  are 
presented  to  the  teacher  in  private,  kindly,  clearly  and  thor- 
oughly and  where  possible  with  references  to  current  litera- 
ture on  the  subject.  Teachers  are  responsible  moral  agents 
and  above  all  responsible  physical  agents,  and  are  controlled 
chiefly  in  the  proposition  of  their  school  work  through  ma- 
terial sources.  Common  justice  and  equity  demands  there- 
fore that  those  charged  with  responsibilities  be  given  the 
right  of  freedom  of  action  and  the  right  to  follow  their  own 
judgments,  at  least  in  the  employment  of  details  in  school- 
room operations.  Methods  that  one  can  successfully  use 
to  secure  results  may  not  bring  them  when  used  by  another. 
Now  since  what  the  American  system  demands  is  results, 
since  every  week,  every  month,  every  term,  the  teacher  must 
be  able  to  show  in  results  what  has  been  attained,  would  it 
not  be  fair  to  allow  him  at  least  freedom  of  individual  action 
in  his  work?     Give  him  this,  give  him  some  right  to  exercise 


> 


Discipline  169 

undisturbed  and  unrestricted  his  individuality  and  inventive 
genius  without  fear  of  molestation  and  interference  and 
the  constant  fear  of  public  humiliation  and  perhaps  the  loss 
of  his  job. 

Given  these  rights  and  privileges  and  freedom  of  action 
and  supported  in  the  rightful  and  conscientious  pursuit  of 
his  work  by  those  in  authority  the  path  to  successful  govern- 
ment, discipline  and  consequent  instruction  is  comparatively 
easy.  To  these,  however,  the  teacher  must  add,  to  further 
promote  his  success  those  personal  virtues  which  we  enumer- 
ated above  under  the  head  of  the  psychic  forces  of  govern- 
ment and  discipline.  These  are  scholarship,  a  high  sense  of 
duty  and  right,  courage  and  determination,  tact,  indefa- 
tigableness,  good  nature,  good  manners  and  an  air  of  au- 
thority and  business  both  in  manner  and  voice  coupled  with 
an  evident  desire  to  be  fair  and  just  to  all.  Armed  with 
these  virtues  in  the  schoolroom  and  supported  by  the  good 
will  and  authority  of  those  without  the  schoolroom  the 
teacher  is  pretty  well  assured  of  success  in  almost  any  school 
and  in  almost  any  community.  Goverment  and  discipline 
will  be  natural  and  easy,  instruction  will  fall  upon  kindly 
ears  and  the  whole  being  of  the  child  can  drink  in  o.f  his 
surroundings  as  the  teacher  lights  up  the  whole  with  his 
personality,  his  enthusiasm  and  his  love  for  both  his  pupils 
and  his  work.  Here  it  will  follow  as  a  natural  consequence 
that  rules  will  be  few  and  fully  understood  and  accepted  as 
necessary.  Only  such  rules  will  be  made  as  will  not  tend 
to  confusion  and  consequent  misunderstanding,  changes  in 
them  will  seldom  occur  and  when  they  do  become  necessary 
they  will  be  anticipated,  made  known  and  justified  to  the 
pupil.  As  a  result  there  will  be  a  disposition  for  full  and 
free  obedience  among  the  pupils.  The  pupils  will  know 
that  obedience  will  be  expected  and  rigidly  demanded,  and 
that  the  punishment  in  case  of  disobedience  will  be  natural, 
fitted  to  the  degree  of  transgression  and  administered  kindly 
and  with  tenderness.  The  teacher  will  understand  child 
nature  and  the  pupil  more  of  the  nature  of  the  matured. 
For  each  in  every  case  there  will  be  due  consideration.  In- 
struction and  the  imparting  of  knowledge  will  be  easy  and 


170  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

the  intellect  of  the  child  will  grow  apace  until  we  have  a 
developed  being  capable  of  self  direction  in  the  affairs  of  life 
and  of  moral  conduct  toward  his  fellows,  asserting  itself 
along  the  lines  of  his  chosen  field  of  endeavor. 

REFERENCE  READING 

Bagley's  "  The  Educative  Process."     Chap.  XIII. 

Bolton's  "Principles  of  Education."     Chap.  XXVIII. 

Compayre's  "  Psychology  Applied  to  Education."     Chap.  XIV. 

O'Shea's  "  Social  Development  and  Education."     Chap.  XV. 

Arnold's  "  School  and  Class  Management."     Chaps.  IV,  V,  VI,  VII. 

Perry's  "Management  of  a  City  School."     Chap.  IX. 

Dinsmore's  "Teaching  a  District  School."     Chap.  X. 

Gillette's  "Vocational  Education."     Chap.  VIII. 

Collar   &   Crook's    "  School   Management   and   Method   of    Instruction." 

Chap.  IV. 
Pechard's  "School  Supervision."     Chap.  XV. 
Fitch's  "Lectures  on  Teaching."     Chap.  IV. 
DeGarmo's     "Principles     of     Secondary     Education."    Vol.     I,    Chap. 

Ill    (2). 
See  also  references  to  Chapter  on  Punishments. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

PUNISHMENTS  IN  THE  SCHOOL 

The  Nature  and  Justification  of  Punishments.  No  form 
of  school  routine  and  school  method  has  received  as  much 
study  and  consideration,  nothing  connected  with  school  life 
has  been  so  written  upon  and  discussed  as  the  questions  of 
the  method,  demand  and  justification  of  various  forms  of 
punishments  for  the  school.  This  is  a  "  progressive  age." 
In  eveiything  there  is  a  reaction  against  old  methods  and 
old  institutions,  both  social,  civil,  ecclesiastical  and  educa- 
tional. The  reaction  as  to  methods  of  punishments  both  in 
the  state,  the  home  and  the  school  seems  to  be  here  to  stay. 
This  age  is  an  age  of  encouragement  of  activity,  better,  of 
course,  if  directed,  but  desired  even  when  uncontrolled  or  un- 
directed by  external  forces.  The  wave  of  reaction  tended 
to  carry,  and  appears  in  some  cases  to  have  carried  us  almost 
to  the  other  extreme.  But  sober  judgment  and  wise  discre- 
tion have  brought  us  back  to  a  more  immediate  middle 
ground.  Punishment,  if  we  are  to  accept  the  inherited  prac- 
tices of  the  ages  as  sufficient  reason,  are  a  necessity  in  all 
forms  of  group  life  and  the  control  of  group  activity.  In 
all  forms  of  social  life  the  will  and  best  good  of  the  majority 
whether  conceived  as  such  consciously  or  instinctively  are 
vouchsafed  for  by  some  form  of  punitive  systems.  So  well 
established  has  been  the  proof  that  punitive  systems  are 
necessary  for  community  life  and  government  that  the  de- 
mand is  everywhere  acknowledged  and  practiced  by  all.  The 
very  fundaments  of  biological  principle  rest  upon  a  pleasure- 
pain  basis,  that  is  a  readjustment  of  habits  of  action  to  seek 
and  maintain  states  of  pleasure  and  avoid  and  overcome  those 
of  pain.  So  that  the  question  involved  to-day  in  educa- 
tional processes  is  not  so  much  as  to  the  efficiency  or  need 
of  punishment,  but  rather  as  to  the  need  or  efficiency  of  cer- 

171 


172  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

tain  kinds  of  punishments.  No  theorists,  however  idealistic 
they  may  be  in  their  conception  of  education  and  the  proc- 
esses of  education  have  ever-  presumed  to  advocate  the 
abandonment  of  all  forms  of  punishments  in  the  schoolroom. 
With  primitive  man  when  might  was  right  and  little  was 
known  of  the  efficacy  as  well  as  benevolence  of  mental  pun- 
ishment all  forms  of  punishments  were  chiefly  physical. 
With  these  same  types  of  men  both  then  and  now  the  life 
they  lived  is  chiefly  a  physical  life.  Life  was  a  hard  and 
severe  struggle  and  breaches  of  social  conduct  fraught  mostly 
with  much  inconvenience  to  society.  Consequently  these 
breaches  of  conduct  were  restrained  by  severe  physical  pun- 
ishments. During  medieval  times  the  struggle  for  existence 
was  severe  and  the  means  of  governing  because  the  means  of 
communication  and  movements  were  slow,  were  poor.  String- 
ent measures  were  necessary  to  control  rebellious  and  rest- 
less spirits  and  all  breaches  of  conduct  were  severely  and 
summarily  dealt  with.  It  is  this  relic  of  medieval  govern- 
ment as  found  both  in  the  home,  the  state  and  the  school 
that  we  have  inherited  against  which  we  are  reacting  to-day 
in  an  endeavor  to  throw  it  off.  The  danger  lies  in  going  too 
far.  Where  shall  we  stop?  While  the  reaction  all  along 
the  line  in  home,  state  and  school  is  toward  less  physical 
punishment  and  more  of  an  appeal  to  the  spiritual  side  of 
man  and  the  application  of  mental  punishments  it  would, 
from  the  very  nature  of  the  subject  to  be  treated  in  the  case, 
be  unwise  to  jump  too  hastily  to  the  other  extreme.  Despite 
the  agitation  to  the  contrary  both  in  general  and  in  special 
cases  the  use  of  physical  punishments  has  been  found  to  be 
warranted  in  some  cases.  Mental  punishments  since  first 
agitated  and  practiced  have  never  met  with  serious  opposi- 
tion. To-day  the  most  serious  attitude  toward  them  is  seen 
in  the  desire  to  control  and  prescribe  the  manner,  time  and 
cause  of  them  as  based  upon  a  study  of  the  nature  of  the  in- 
dividual upon  whom  they  are  to  be  inflicted.  This  is  in 
general  now  the  attitude  toward  physical  punishments. 

School  Punishments.  We  are  concerned  in  our  discussion 
here  only  with  the  matter  of  punishment  as  employed  in  and 
applicable  to  the  school.     Here  is  where  the  chief  conflicts 


Punishments  173 

over  the  questions  of  the  nature,  kind,  manner  and  occasion 
of  the  various  forms  of  punishments  both  physical  and  mental 
rage.  The  home  uses  both  kinds  of  punishments  without 
arousing  serious  opposition  or  discussion  except  perhaps 
in  a  few  isolated  and  rare  cases.  The  state  does  the  same 
and  there  is  likewise  almost  total  acquiescence  on  the  part 
of  the  citizenship  in  it.  Society  does  too  and  here  too  re- 
sistence  or  objection  is  never  strongly  evident.  But  when 
the  school  attempts  such  there  is  no  end  to  the  discussion, 
agitation  and  opposition  which  it  occasions.  Is  not  the 
teacher  in  loco  parentis?  Does  the  school  not  undertake 
with  and  for  the  child  some  of  the  specific  duties  of  the  state, 
society  and  the  home?  The  answer  in  each  case  is  in  the 
affirmative.  But  even  in  the  face  of  this,  opposition  to  the 
school  adopting  the  various  means  of  punishment  continues 
and  the  agitation  about  it  and  discussion  of  it  goes  on  anon. 
In  all  of  this  there  are  at  least  two  fundamental  reasons 
for  this  attitude  toward  the  administering  of  the  various 
forms  of  punishment  on  the  part  of  the  school.  The  first 
one  of  these  is  that  there  is  a  basic  relation  existing  between 
the  child  and  the  home  and  home  government  that  is  deeper 
and  more  lasting  both  in  its  nature  and  the  duties  and  re- 
sponsibilities which  it  bears,  and  though  in  a  sense  the  school 
is  in  place  of  the  home  and  the  teacher  in  the  place  of  the 
parent  he  can  never  think  nor  feel  toward  and  for  the  child 
as  the  parent  would  and  does  do,  nor  can  the  school  assume 
the  basic  responsibilities  which  the  home  must  and  does  as- 
sume. These  elements  of  difference  in  relation  and  respon- 
sibility will  always  be  a  source  of  inconvenience  and  hin- 
drance to  the  school  and  the  teacher  in  carrying  on  their 
delegated  functions  and  will  always  tend  to  provoke  criti- 
cism against  them  to  more  or  less  extent  in  these  matters, 
even  though  at  bottom  there  be  little  or  nothing  wrong  with 
what  they  advocate  and  do.  The  other  source  of  this  at- 
titude towards  the  administration  of  punishment  on  the 
part  of  the  school  is  probably  due  to  the  lack  of  method 
and  moderation  in  the  administration  of  it  and  the  absence 
oftentimes  of  the  controlling  element  of  love  and  sympathy. 
Along  with  these  goes  the  further  consideration  that  not 


174  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

only  are  these  oftentimes  wanting  in  the  school  while  they 
are  almost  alwa}'s  present  in  the  home,  but  even  where  pres- 
ent in  the  school  they  cannot  be  formally  aroused  in  the 
teacher  to  the  extent  and  in  the  manner  in  which  they  exist 
by  nature  in  the  parent,  a  fact  for  which  the  world  in  the 
formation  and  expression  of  its  judgments  is  willing  and 
wont  to  make  such  elaborate  allowance  for  the  shortcomings 
of  the  one  which  are  entirely  wanting  in  consideration  of 
the  failures  and  shortcomings  of  the  other.  In  some  cases 
it  must  be  admitted  that  the  school  has  at  times  because 
unprompted  in  its  methods  and  feelings  by  the  deeper  emo- 
tions of  love  and  sympathy  been  guilty  of  flagrant  abuses 
of  the  rights  to  inflict  punishments.  However,  there  are 
imperative  demands  upon  the  school  which  if  they  are  to  be 
met  must  be  met  through  the  right  and  privilege  of  pun- 
ishments. Further,  if  the  school  would  succeed  and  have  the 
approval  of  society  it  must  make  up  by  nurture  whatever  it 
lacks  by  nature  along  these  lines  and  whatever  the  pupils 
in  the  school  lack  in  ability.  Method  must  be  studied, 
moderation  practiced  and  sympathy,  care  and  gentleness 
cultivated.  The  day  when  "  readin'  and  'ritin'  and 
'rithmetic  "  were  "  taught  to  the  tune  of  a  hickory  stick  " 
are  chiefly  past,  as  is  the  time  when  brute  strength  in  the 
school  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  compelled  blind  mechanical 
submission  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  to  arbitrary  rules  still 
more  arbitrarily  enforced,  with  the  complete  suppression, 
if  not  entire  destruction  of,  all  tendencies  towards  self  ac- 
tivity and  individualism.  Investigation  of  the  past  methods 
of  inflicting  punishments  and  the  causes  for  which  punish- 
ments were  inflicted  shows  that  the  penal  code  of  the  school- 
room was  severe  and  impractical,  and  even  at  times,  brutal. 
For  the  making  of  the  modern  man  as  conceived  by  our 
present  standard  of  education  it  was  sadly  misapplied. 
Especially  was  this  true  of  physical  punishments.  Mental 
punishments  were  little  known  it  seems,  but  sure,  we  are 
that  it  was  practiced  but  little.  It  was  also  the  rigid  and 
unregulated  application  of  the  system  that  caused  the  agi- 
tation and  reaction,     Punishments  were  inflicted  for  almost 


Punishments  175 

any  cause,  trivial  or  grave  and  upon  any  part  of  the  body, 
whether  pupil  were  delicate  or  robust  and  the  particular 
locality  well  or  ill-adapted  by  nature  to  the  kind  of  punish- 
ment inflicted.  The  result  was  that  observation  soon  showed 
physical  evil  flowing  from  school  punishment  entirely  out 
of  proportion  to  the  good  which  the  school  inflicted  pun- 
ishment was  intended  to  accomplish.  This  called  not  only 
the  school  methods  into  question  but  also  the  very  existence 
of  the  school  itself. 

What  was  there  which  the  school  gave  that  could  com- 
pensate for  nervous  prostration  brought  on  by  super  ex- 
citement from  a  whipping,  deafness  from  a  blow  over  the  ear, 
blindness  from  one  over  the  eye,  or  idiocy  or  insanity  by  one 
on  the  head?  What  had  the  school  to  give  that  could  ade- 
quately compensate  for  genital  or  intestinal  trouble  induced 
by  blows  on  the  buttocks,  or  constipation,  indigestion  and 
other  functional  disorders  produced  by  physical  punishments 
inaptly  applied  to  various  parts  of  the  body?  That  school 
punishments  have  been  known  at  times  to  have  produced  all 
of  these  troubles  is  a  fact  well  established  by  investigation. 
The  case  cited  by  G.  Stanley  Hall  from  Richter  of  the  record 
of  an  old  Swabian  school  teacher  by  name  Haberle,  is  a  good 
instance  of  the  morbid  use  of  physical  punishments  mostly 
in  a  manner  strictly  forbidden  by  pedagogical  principles,  if 
not  by  public  sentiment.  These  punishments  were  inflicted 
during  a  period  of  service  extending  over  fifty-one  years 
and  seven  months  of  service.  Because  of  their  enormity  and 
the  fact  that  they  were  carefully  compiled  by  the  teacher 
himself,  I  present  them  here.  They  are:  911,527  blows  with 
a  cane:  124,010  with  a  rod;  20,989  with  a  ruler;  136,715 
with  the  hand;  60,295  over  the  mouth;  7,905  boxes  on  the 
ear;  1,115,800  snaps  on  the  head  (with  the  tips  of  fingers 
and  knuckles) ;  22,763  nota  benes,  with  bible,  catechism, 
hymn  book  and  grammar;  777  times  boys  had  to  kneel  on 
peas;  613  times  on  triangular  blocks  of  wood;  500  had  to 
carry  a  timber  mare  and  1,701  had  to  hold  the  rod  high  — 
the  last  two  being  punishments  of  his  own  invention.  Of 
the  blows  with  the  cane  800,000  were  for  Latin  vowels  and 


176  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

76,000  of  those  with  the  rod  for  bible  verses  and  hymns. 
He  used  a  scolding  vocabulary  of  over  3,000  terms  of  which 
one  third  were  of  his  own  creation. 

This  was  undoubtedly  an  unusual  case.  One,  perhaps, 
in  need  of  pathological  treatment.  But  in  the  earlier  days, 
before  the  reaction  set  in,  it  had  many  counterparts  through- 
out the  civilized  world  though  perhaps  they  were  somewhat 
less  severe.  Is  it  any  wonder  then  that  there  was  an  ener- 
getic reaction  against  this  method  of  punishment  in  the 
school?  Is  it  any  wonder  that  it  spread  rapidly  far  and 
wide?  France  under  the  influence  that  produced  Rousseau 
and  Montaigne  went  to  the  other  extreme  and  forbade  cor- 
poral punishment  in  her  schools,  having  now  all  of  her  dis- 
ciplinary and  governmental  school  measures  free  from  all 
advocacy  of  it.  In  Germany  and  most  other  countries  of 
Continental  Europe,  though  allowed,  physical  punishment 
is  strictly  limited  and  prescribed  as  to  kind,  method  of  ad- 
ministering, parts  of  the  body  fit  for  receiving  various  kinds 
of  punishments  and  the  causes  for  which  certain  punishments 
may  be  afflicted.  In  this  country  we  have  in  general  followed 
in  the  wake  of  England,  Germany  and  the  other  countries 
of  Continental  Europe.  There  are  a  few  men  in  this  coun- 
try among  them  educators  of  considerable  influence  and 
recognition  who  advocate  the  French  pedagogical  practice 
of  no  physical  punishments  in  the  school.  Too,  many  sec- 
tions and  even  states  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country  led 
on  by  the  earnest  advocacy  of  one  or  more  theorist  and 
idealist  have  legislated  many  forms  of  physical  punishments 
out  of  the  school.  Some  of  the  teachers  in  the  schools  have 
succeeded  in  keeping  school  evidently  successfully  without 
the  aid  of  these  forms  of  physical  punishments.  Others, 
however,  have  apparently  fared  worse  with  the  experiment 
and  have  because  the  experiment  failed  returned  to  the  old 
method.  One  such  city  is  New  York.  In  most  cases  though 
the  reaction  from  the  prohibition  of  all  corporal  punish- 
ment did  not  return  us  to  the  old  regime,  it  did  not  allow 
the  use  of  plrysical  punishment  under  certain  specific  re- 
strictions. Under  the  general  scheme  of  local  rights  and 
individualism  in  our  American  system  of  education  such  an 


Punishments  177 

intermediate  (compromise)  ground  seems  to  have  been  the 
best  obtainable.  Even  to-day  such  cities  as  Baltimore,  Md., 
West  Chester,  and  Harriburg,  Pa.,  strictly  forbid  all  forms 
of  physical  punishment. 

The  Purpose  of  Punishments.  The  purpose  of  punish- 
ments is  to  curb  infractious  and  rebellious  spirits  and  vouch- 
safe to  society  a  maximum  amount  of  freedom  of  action  with 
a  minimum  amount  of  restriction  and  thereby  increase  the 
sum  total  of  human  happiness.  In  the  school  its  purpose 
is  to  reform  the  wrong  doer,  to  deter  others  from  wrong 
doing  and  to  give  to  school  processes  opportunity  for  the 
maximum  working  efficiency  and  conservation  of  time.  Until 
man  reaches  a  state  of  absolute  perfection,  mentally,  morally 
and  physically,  until  human  knowledge  shall  be  complete 
and  all  individual  feelings,  emotions,  desires  and  impulses 
melt  away  into  group  consciousness  and  become  identical 
with  it  and  all  human  standards  one,  until  all  human  action 
becomes  absolutely  free  and  all  human  imperfections  gone 
there  will  be  need  of  punishments,  mental  for  some,  corporal 
for  others  and  both  for  still  others  to  deter,  reform  and  hold 
in  check  those  who  either  ignorantly  ignore  or  willfully  trans- 
gress upon  the  rights  of  others  and  restrict  them  in  the  full 
and  proper  exercise  of  their  individual  rights  and  privileges. 
The  basis  of  all  punishments  are  the  rights  and  best  good 
of  the  majority.  They  are  to  repress  in  the  individual  all 
unsocial  tendencies  and  make  of  him  a  fit  member  of  the  so- 
cial group.  In  our  modern  conception  which  we  have  in- 
herited probably  from  the  views  propagated  by  Hume  the 
individual  is  secondary  and  the  group  primary.  This  is 
true  in  the  school.  While  the  individual  has  rights  as  such 
and  apart  from  the  group,  the  interests  of  all  the  pupils 
separately  are  subordinated  to  the  interests  of  the  class  as 
a  whole.  Whenever  one  of  the  school  would  override  the 
best  good  of  the  school  he  is  brought  back  to  that  kind  of 
conduct  that  is  in  harmony  with  the  group  (school)  inter- 
ests. 

The  Demand  for  Punishments.  The  school  exists  for  the 
purpose  of  fitting  individuals  for  the  lives  they  are  to  lead 
among  their  fellows,  equip  them  with  and  show  them  the  use 


178  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

of  such  tools  as  they  need  to  maintain  themselves  and  help 
others  to  self  maintenance.  This  duty  of  the  school  is  im- 
perative. To  perform  it,  it  has  access  to  the  whole  category 
of  penalties  for  application  when  it  is  found  to  be  necessary 
to  appeal  to  them.  The  cases  that  arise  for  management 
run  the  whole  gamut  of  individualities.  There  are  some 
who  seem  to  have  no  social  tendencies  as  far  as  their  school 
mates  are  concerned.  In  them  there  is  no  love,  no  affection. 
Not  caring  particularly  for  the  society  of  their  fellows  nor 
that  of  the  teacher  they  neither  desire  their  approbations  and 
its  effects  nor  do  they  fear  their  disapprobation.  This 
may  be  easily  seen  by  the  conduct  of  such  pupils  toward 
their  fellows.  For  those  there  is  no  hope  except  through 
the  infliction  of  physical  pain.  Such  pupils  generally  have 
peculiar  moods  and  temperaments  and  due  regard  must  al- 
ways be  had  for  such  in  administering  punishments.  Bodily 
pain  when  inflicted  must  be  recognized  by  the  sufferer  as  a 
natural  and  necessary  consequence  of  his  act.  The  admin- 
isterer  must  have  before-hand  fully  impressed  upon  him  his 
good  will  toward  him  and  have  shown  him  the  demand  in 
the  act  for  punishment  to  come.  On  the  other  hand  there 
are  natures  timorous  and  easily  intimidated.  Care  must  be 
exercised  not  to  destroy  self  assertiveness  and  the  natural 
tendencies  to  action  in  such  pupils. 

The  Reason  of  Being  of  Punishments.  Since  the  dawn  of 
the  reaction  against  the  severity  of  the  various  forms  of 
plrysical  punishments,  much  has  been  written  about  the  na- 
ture and  forms  of  punishments.  In  this  connection  the  the- 
ories of  Rousseau  as  brought  out  most  clearly  in  his  "  Emile," 
and  of  Spencer  as  set  forth  in  his  essay  on  "  Education  " 
are  basic  and  to-day  quite  popular.  Both  write  from 
practically  the  same  viewpoint  and  in  general  advocate  the 
same  nature  and  form  of  punishments.  Spencer's  princi- 
ples have  a  biological  basis  while  Rousseau's  rests  perhaps 
more  on  a  physiological  basis.  Both  of  their  theories  have 
had  far  reaching  effects  upon  all  educational  theories  and 
practice.  His  plea  is  for  "  natural  punishments."  He  bases 
his  arguments  on  the  theory  of  the  pleasure-pain  economy  in 
nature.     According  to  it  all  of  those  adjustments  and  activi- 


Punishments  179 

ties  are  harmful  which  bring  pain  to  the  organism;  bene- 
ficial all  of  those  which  bring  pleasure.  In  the  moral  world 
he  makes  things  biologically  harmful  wrong  and  those  bio- 
logically beneficial  he  makes  right.  "  That  conduct,  then, 
whose  total  moral  results,  immediate  and  remote,  are  bene- 
ficial is  good  conduct ;  while  conduct  whose  total  results,  im- 
mediate and  remote  are  injurious  is  bad  conduct."  Spen- 
cer's philosophy  here  as  elsewhere  is  a  sort  of  natural  ma- 
terialism that  is  mechanically  self-operative  and  self-per- 
petuative.  Here  he  would  have  acts  and  their  effects 
mechanically  react  one  upon  the  other.  Here  the  bodily 
pain  or  pleasure  that  would  follow  any  act  would  be  the 
inevitable  result  issuing  forth  as  a  reward  or  punishment  of 
such  act.  All  acts  that  bring  pleasure  to  the  individual  he 
would  class  as  morally  right  and  those  that  bring  pain  as 
morally  wrong.  All  the  teacher  is  to  do  is  to  stand  aside 
and  let  nature  take  its  course.  Where  the  teacher  deigns 
to  enter  and  interpose  he  must  not  depart  from  the  methods 
of  nature.  This  theory  has  its  good  points  as  well  as  its 
bad  ones.  In  favor  of  it,  it  might  be  argued  that  the  pun- 
ishments are  unavoidable  and  inevitable.  They  also  have 
an  advantage  in  being  free  from  many  of  the  flagrant  abuses 
of  all  artificial  punishments.  Being  "  constant,  direct,  un- 
hesitating and  not  to  be  escaped  "  they  remove  the  confusion 
and  misunderstanding  arising  from  moods  and  temperaments 
and  other  external  circumstances  attendant  upon  the  inflic- 
tion of  punishments.  They  are  proportionate  to  the  degree 
of  the  offense,  "  a  slight  accident  (wrong)  brings  a  slight 
pain  (punishment),  a  more  serious  one  a  greater  pain." 
There  is  no  room  manifestly  for  such  things  as  malice,  re- 
venge or  passion.  No  double  punishments  will  occur  here 
and  no  promise  will  be  made  only  to  be  forgotten  later.  All 
will  be  a  silent,  rigorous  performance  where  all  are  treated 
alike  on  sunshiny  days  and  cloudy  days,  when  the  digestion 
is  good  and  when  it  is  bad,  when  there  is  sickness  and  when 
there  is  health  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  The  child  in  his 
daily  life  is  subject  to  a  system  of  order  that  persists  in 
unerring  and  unswerving  force  from  life  to  death.  "  If  the 
child  runs  a  pin  into  its  finger  pain  follows.     If  it  does  it 


180  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

again,  there  is  again  the  same  result  and  so  on  perpetually." 
It  "  listens  to  no  excuse  and  from  it  there  is  no  appeal ;  it 
is  the  order  not  only  of  school  but  also  of  life." 

Spencer's  theory  of  natural  punishments  is  practicable, 
easily  understood  and  capable  of  ready  application  in  the 
schoolroom,  besides  possessing  the  merit  of  being  a  system 
for  conduct  in  life.  While  there  is  much  in  nature  that  man 
imitates  and  the  injunction  everywhere  a  common  place  "  be 
natural  "  has  its  virtues,  there  are  times  and  places  where 
not  only  do  we  not  wish  to  be  natural  but  in  fact  desire 
to  be  everything  else  except  natural.  Art  has  shown  that 
it  can  make  decided  improvements  on  nature.  The  fact  is 
that  the  very  purpose  of  the  school  and  school  processes,  the 
state  and  society,  is  to  overcome  and  improve  upon  nature; 
to  make  us  not  natural  but  artificial.  Culture  for  which  we 
all  struggle  is  directly  away  from  nature.  Validity  is 
claimed  for  this  theory  of  Spencer's  on  the  basis  that  it  is 
a  biological  principle  and  therefore  fundamental.  While 
this  is  true  it  also  is  a  fact  that  it  has  value  chiefly  in  bio- 
logical matters.  Applied  to  the  realm  of  reason,  feeling 
and  emotion  it  falls  far  short  of  what  its  promulgator  and 
devotees  had  hoped  for  it.  Besides  it  is  contrary  to  the 
modern  social  order.  The  tendency  to-day  is  to  alleviate 
pain  and  to  save  from  the  physiological  effects  of  natural 
law.  Legislation  both  in  school  and  state  and  common 
usage  in  society  all  are  directed  to  that  end.  In  the  home 
there  is  mitigation  of  transgression  and  oftentimes  success- 
ful appeal  from  it;  in  the  state  so  common  has  this  become 
that  legal  procedure  has  been  robbed  almost  entirely  of  its 
effectiveness  as  a  deterrent  from  crime  by  the  elaborate  sys- 
tem of  mitigation  and  appeal  now  a  part  of  it.  Since 
the  school  is  a  preparation  for  life  in  the  state  and  society 
why  may  this  not  prevail  in  it  also?  Again  the  theory  is 
certainly  foreign  to  present  pedagogical  principles  which 
claim  for  themselves  grounding  in  extensive  scientific  investi- 
gation. The  very  thing  we  seek  for  in  punishment,  namely, 
reformation  and  the  good  will  of  the  child  is  here  impossible. 
All  natures  suffer  alike  whether  through  ignorance,  evil  in- 
tention,  accident   or   even   good   intention.     The   sick   and 


Punishments  181 

afflicted  with  the  well  and  hearty,  equally  if  not  more  in- 
tensely because  of  their  increased  nervous  tension,  the  low 
and  brutish  natures  alike  with  the  high  and  ephemeral,  the 
highly  sentimental  and  responsive  temperaments  equally  with 
the  less  sentimental  and  less  responsive  temperaments.  Mis- 
understanding and  ignorance  have  the  same  punishments  as 
knowledge  and  willfulness.  Its  most  flagrant  and  glaring 
fault,  however,  is  that  it  makes  no  allowance  whatever  for 
the  element  of  intent  in  the  agent,  a  principle  that  is  uni- 
versally in  practice  in  all  penal  codes  and  legal  procedure 
in  Christendom  and  which  is  the  basis  of  modern  pedagogy. 
Besides  with  nature  there  is  neither  gentleness,  love  nor  sym- 
pathy, by  which  the  school  is  expected  to  bring  out  that 
which  is  best  in  the  pupil  and  arouse  him  to  higher  and 
nobler  ambitions.  But  even  to  consider  this  theory  in  the 
field  of  biology  which  is  its  stronghold,  here  also  the  practices 
of  men  are  in  favor  of  mitigating  and  alleviating  punishments 
for  the  transgression  of  natural  law. 

The  theory  attacked  in  its  stronghold  totters  and  falls. 
If  the  child  pricks  his  finger  with  a  pin,  medicinal  applica- 
tion reduces  materially  if  it  does  not  remove  entirely  the 
ensuing  pain.  We  daily  transgress  both  biological  and 
physiological  laws  and  either  escape  the  penalties  or  materi- 
ally mitigate  them.  In  fact  the  entire  science  of  medicine 
owes  its  very  existence  to  the  full  knowledge  that  the  effects 
of  the  transgression  of  biological  laws  can  be  more  or  less 
escaped  by  the  cunning  application  on  the  part  of  the  physi- 
cian of  various  healing  and  remedial  agents  in  the  physical 
world  about  us.  Other  transgressions  committed  may  be 
delayed  and  by  living  "  model  lives  "  for  a  while  or  for  the 
rest  of  one's  life  the  effects  of  these  biological  sins  of  either 
omission  or  commission  become  lost  on  us  in  the  general 
tone  of  health  that  follows.  Many  wrongs  biologically  are 
thus  committed  and  the  organism  never  knowingly  suffers 
for  them.  Furthermore  in  the  cases  of  indifference  to  knowl- 
edge and  neglect  of  it  during  the  school  age  the  penalty,  if 
allowed  to  come  by  nature,  would  be  delayed  until  the  child 
grows  to  maturity  before  its  full  effects  would  be  felt  by 
him.     At  the  time  when  he  neither  knows  the  value  of  knowl- 


182  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

edge,  nor  what  the  effects  of  the  lack  of  it  will  be  on  his 
future,  natural  punishment  would  let  him  go  free  and  later 
when  it  is  too  late  to  check  one's  self  in  the  loss  of  given 
opportunity,  where  the  power,  at  least  to  a  full  degree,  of 
association  of  the  cause  of  the  punishment  with  its  effect  is 
gone,  and  when  there  is  no  opportunity  to  benefit  by  the 
punishment  and  consequently  it  can  do  no  good,  it  comes 
with  all  of  its  train  of  suffering  and  misery. 

One  of  the  chief  elements  in  the  effectiveness  of  artificial 
punishments  as  advocated  by  modern  pedagogy  is  that  it 
should  not  be  delayed  long  after  the  act  for  which  it  is  to 
be  inflicted  has  been  committed,  so  that  in  the  mind  of  the 
miscreant  there  may  be  a  full  association  of  the  act  as  a 
cause  with  the  punishment  as  an  effect.  In  the  cases  of 
many  persons  punishments  (as  effects)  both  natural  and 
artificial  when  delayed  are  seldom  if  ever  fully  associated 
with  their  causes.  With  children  in  whom  the  chain  of 
cause  and  effect  is  but  poorly  established  in  thought,  the 
danger  of  failing  to  grasp  this  relation  in  penalties  is  great 
enough  when  the  wrong  and  the  penalty  for  it  follow  each 
closely  in  time,  but  immeasurably  greater  becomes  the  likeli- 
hood of  the  absence  of  this  association  when  punishments  for 
acts  are  delayed  for  a  greater  or  less  length  of  time. 

Natural  punishments  are  to  be  condemned  further  because 
in  many  cases  in  them  the  "  sins  of  the  fathers  are  often 
visited  upon  the  children  unto  the  third  and  forth  genera- 
tion." A  fact  undoubtedly  at  odds  with  the  present  prac- 
tical even  if  to  some  extent  materialistic  conception  both  of 
morality  and  justice.  Another  point  worthy  of  consideration 
here  is  that  the  senses  may  become  so  distorted  as  to  make 
pleasurable  feelings  that  would  undoubtedly  be  harmful  to  the 
organism.  Then,  too,  many  bodily  states  naturally  pleasur- 
able are  harmful  and  many  things  naturally  pleasant  of 
themselves  are  biologically  harmful  and  even  deadly.  So 
that  from  the  viewpoint  of  modern  pedagogy  the  theories  of 
Spencer  are  not  very  applicable  in  the  penal  code  of  the 
schoolroom.  The  whole  system  of  penalties  as  practiced 
to-day  is  one  of  reformation  sought  to  be  brought  about  by 
temporizing  with  the  individual  will.     A  compromise,  as  it 


Punishments  183 

has  well  been  called,  between  the  abstract  method  of  nature 
and  the  concrete  relative  method  of  mind. 

The  Value  of  Justification  of  Punishment.  German  peda- 
gogy advocates  physical  punishments  because  they  are  effec- 
tive, require  little  time  and  are  particularly  adopted  to 
children  of  low  intellectual  and  moral  natures.  Children 
who  fail  to  yield  to  all  of  the  mental  means  of  approach  to 
their  inner  life  of  thought  and  action  must  be  appealed  to 
through  sense,  especially  through  the  sense  of  feeling.  This 
appeal  to  the  senses  should  be  made  only  when  the  gravity 
of  the  situation  demands  it.  Oftentimes  some  acts  have  more 
serious  consequences  at  one  time  than  at  another.  Some- 
times again  they  upset  or  undo  things  of  greater  import  than 
others  and  sometimes  they  create  situations  that  may  even 
affect  the  life  or  success  of  the  school.  When  for  such  cases 
punishments  are  inflicted  they  should  be  carefully  adopted 
to  the  sensibility  of  the  child  in  the  first  place  and  to  his 
sense  of  responsibility  in  the  second.  Some  children  are 
highly  sensitive  and  light  blows  cause  great  pain  while  on 
the  other  hand  there  are  many  children  with  dull  and  dead- 
ened sensibilities  upon  whom  even  vigorous  blows  have  only 
slightly  painful  effects.  Blows  that  bring  great  pain  to 
the  one  may  hardly  arouse  the  deadened  periphery  of  the 
other.  In  the  other  case  young  children  and  children  who 
have  had  slight  moral  or  intellectual  training  have  not  a 
highly  developed  sense  of  responsibility.  The  child  who 
does  something  and  knows  beforehand  that  it  will  be  held 
as  a  serious  crime  and  will  lead  to  various  results  that  are 
serious  in  the  hindrance  of  the  attainment  of  individual  or 
group  ends  and  still  persists  in  doing  it,  obviously  requires 
greater  punishment  than  he  who  has  little  knowledge  of  the 
far  reaching  effects  of  his  deeds,  or  who  was  by  reason  of 
age  or  training  vaguely  aware  of  their  consequence. 

Punishments  tend  again  by  too  frequent  repetition  to  be- 
come ineffective.  The  moral  nature  becomes  callous  and 
there  is  thereafter  no  response  to  the  punitive  stimuli  when 
applied.  There  is  danger  in  such  cases  of  producing  the 
hardened  criminal.  Other  means  should  be  employed  as  a 
deterrent.     For  here  the  very  end  of  punishment  —  reforma- 


184  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

tion  —  is  being  destroyed.  Sometimes  there  is  a  frequent 
repetition  of  the  act,  not  so  much  because  the  punishment 
was  not  severe  enough,  but  chiefly  because  the  punishment 
was  not  of  the  right  kind,  or  perhaps  too  long  delayed. 
There  is  always  danger  from  delayed  punishments  which 
may  lead  as  said  above  to  the  improper  association  of  cause 
and  which  therefore  may  lead  to  a  misunderstanding  be- 
tween teacher  and  pupil  resulting  in  resentment  on  the  part 
of  the  pupil  toward  the  teacher.  When  not  thus  created 
hardness  of  feeling  and  indifference  to  punishments  may  arise 
when  they  are  too  severe  and  injurious.  School  punishments 
should  produce  no  more  pain  than  is  required  to  inhibit  the  ap- 
parent tendency  to  the  forbidden  form  of  activity  and  bring 
about  the  ends  necessary  to  promote  successful  class  work. 
Punishments  have  a  two  fold  end  in  view;  they  aim  to  pro- 
mote the  welfare  of  the  class  and  to  effect  the  reform  of  the 
individual.  Justice  must  be  done  to  both.  Punitive  systems 
that  would  neglect  either  principle  would  fall  short  of  their 
mission  in  the  schoolroom.  In  both  cases  the  effects  of  the 
penalties  should  be  enforced  as  quickly  as  possible.  Hence 
any  and  all  forms  of  punishments  that  involve  functional  or 
bodily  injuries  are  to  be  condemned  most  severely. 

The  Effect  of  Punishment  on  the  Teacher.  One  of  the 
strongest  arguments  against  the  use  of  physical  punish- 
ments in  the  schoolroom  by  those  opposed  to  it,  is,  that  be- 
sides the  effects  it  has  upon  the  child,  some  good,  some  ques- 
tionable as  to  their  good  effects  and  some  decidedly  harmful, 
it  is  filled  with  certain  very  undesirable  effects  upon  the 
teacher  himself.  The  first  of  these  deleterious  effects  is  that 
it  lowers  the  self-respect  of  the  teacher  and  robs  him  of  the 
finer  feelings  of  kindliness  and  sympathetic  care.  Indeed 
it  is  claimed  that  it  dissipates  all  of  the  finer  qualities  and 
ennobling  social  traits  and  characteristics.  The  next  step 
in  the  process  is  the  reduction  of  him  to  the  plane  of  the 
brute.  This  is  at  once  a  very  serious  charge  against  the 
administering  of  punishments.  In  this  connection  it  might 
be  added  that  it  is  a  fact  that  once  the  finer  feelings  are 
deadened,  the  brute  in  man,  always  near  the  surface  very 
easily  and  quickly  gains  the  ascendency.     Still  it  is  an  ob- 


Punishments  185 

vious  fact  that  teachers  who  allow  themselves  to  see  in  the 
acts  of  children  elements  demanding  physical  punishments 
and  who  can  bring  themselves  readily  to  believe  that  an 
appeal  to  physical  pain  is  the  only  means  of  deterring  them 
from  the  transgression  of  rules  sometimes  misunderstand 
child  psychic  life  and  attribute  the  wrong  motive  to  many  a 
well  intending  act  and  to  many  an  act  that  was  thoughtless 
and  consequently  without  real  motive.  So  they  can  gradu- 
ally bring  themselves  to  believe  that  children  are  evil  at 
heart  and  either  need  to  be  harslily  governed,  or  else  have  no 
means  of  appeal  by  which  they  can  be  reached  except  through 
the  physical  medium  of  the  body.  When  teachers  have 
reached  this  state  of  mind  in  regard  to  child  life  and  action 
their  best  days  of  usefulness  in  the  schoolroom  are  rapidly 
approaching  an  end  if  not  already  there.  For  either  they 
ruin  the  nature  of  the  child  and  make  of  him  a  hardened 
malefactor,  give  him  a  perverted  idea  of  the  world's  standard, 
beget  in  him  disrespect  for  the  teacher  or  an  attitude  of  re- 
bellion. In  either  of  which  cases  the  end  of  the  school,  the 
proper  education  and  training  of  the  youth  is  lost. 

The  next  step,  of  antagonism  to  the  child  and  childish 
activity,  is  easily  reached.  For  when  the  teacher  has  brought 
himself  to  believe  that  the  child  is  wrong  at  heart  and  be- 
lieves that  there  is  an  evil  motive  in  all  or  most  all  that  he 
does  that  is  a  transgression  of  rules,  he  begins  to  think  it 
necessary  to  anticipate  the  child  and  to  cross  him  in  his 
acts  with  prohibitions  that  restrain  him  in  his  every  activity, 
which  is  his  only  way  of  self  expression.  Too,  he  thinks  it 
both  best  and  necessary  to  deny  the  child  every  request, 
both  the  innocent  and  the  evil  intending.  The  result  upon 
the  child  is  a  reaction  in  which  the  teacher  appears  not  as  his 
friend  but  as  his  ever  watchful  enemy  who  constantly  stands 
between  him  and  any  and  all  forms  of  pleasurable  activity. 
It  is  easily  seen  that  no  teacher  so  regarded  by  a  pupil  can 
gain  from  him  the  amount  of  attention  and  good  will  neces- 
sary for  him  to  impart  knowledge  or  even  arouse  in  him 
the  interest  necessary  for  the  proper  performance  of  the 
minor  details  in  the  educative  schoolroom  processes.  Re- 
sentment into  which  this  state  of  things  sooner  or  later  drifts, 


186  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

more  often  sooner  than  later,  leads  to  results  for  the  child 
which  culminate  in  the  putting  of  an  early  end  to  the  school 
life  of  the  child.  This  is  a  most  serious  result,  yet  how  often 
is  it  the  history  of  a  boy  or  a  girl.  Oftentimes  the  brightest 
is  thus  early  cut  off  from  the  advantages  of  the  school. 
Parents  signally  disappointed  in  the  failure  of  their  chil- 
dren to  make  progress  in  school  and  be  contented  there,  many 
of  whom  had  their  hearts  gladdened  by  the  successes  of  their 
children  in  earlier  grades  and  under  other  teachers,  but  ig- 
norant of  the  true  cause,  or,  if  aware  of  it,  ignorant  of  the 
means  whereby  they  may  overcome  it,  or,  if  acquainted  with 
the  means,  unable  to  bring  them  to  effective  use,  finally  give 
their  reluctant  consent  for  their  children  to  stop  school. 
Oftentimes,  also,  too  proud  to  admit  of  friction  or  trouble 
with  their  children  at  school,  they  pass  off  the  incident  by 
the  statement  that  their  child  has  quit  school  to  go  to  work, 
adding  oftentimes  by  way  of  explanation  that  he  prefers 
this  particular  kind  of  work  to  that  of  school  work  or  has 
no  taste  for  book  knowledge. 

Thus  the  young  life  is  blighted  or  thrown  out  into  the 
world  of  action  with  a  serious  handicap.  Thousands  of 
children,  many  of  whom  are  fine  specimens  of  humanity  with 
promising  futures,  some  of  them  a  delicate,  sensitive  nature, 
each  year  pass  out  of  the  public  schools  into  the  great  busi- 
ness of  life  simply  because  they  were  not  understood,  because 
of  which  the  determined  but  well  intending  teacher,  an 
ardent  advocate  of  the  use  of  the  rod,  drove  them  away  and 
forever  spoiled  them  for  school  life  by  an  unfortunate  appeal 
to  the  rod,  when  a  word  or  a  look  from  the  teacher  with  a 
private  talk  or  something  of  the  sort  would  have  saved  the 
teacher  and  saved  the  pupil  to  the  parents  and  to  the  world 
at  large.  These  are  potent  arguments  against  the  use  of 
physical  punishments  by  the  teacher,  arguments  that  should 
appeal  to  the  innocent  and  guilty  alike.  But  it  does  not 
mean  that  we  should  go  to  the  other  extreme  and  banish  by 
statutory  enactment  physical  punishments  from  the  school 
entirely.  What  the  situation  demands  is  an  appeal  to  the 
highest  judgments  and  deepest  sympathy  of  the  teacher  and 
a  careful  study  of  each  individual  with  a  liberal  allowance 


Punishments  187 

for  child  nature,  its  natural  tendency  to  activity,  love  of 
action  and  lack  in  such  of  all  predetermined  motive  for  ac- 
tion. This,  followed  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  by  deliber- 
ated, but  careful  treatment  based  upon  the  best  analysis  of 
the  needs  of  the  case  that  he  can  bring  to  bear  upon  it  will 
generally  save  the  day  for  all  concerned.  This  seems  to  be 
the  best,  the  only  method  that  will  insure  a  fair  degree  of 
success  in  the  use  of  physical  and  mental  punishments  in  the 
schoolroom. 

The  Kinds  of  Punishments.  The  physical  punishments 
practiced  in  the  schoolroom  have  been  as  varied  as  the  in- 
ventive genius  of  the  teacher  could  make  them.  If  all  of 
the  various  forms  of  physical  punishments  that  have  been 
devised  and  practiced  upon  school-children  could  be  de- 
scribed, they  would  more  than  likely  fill  many  ordinary 
volumes.  While  there  are  certain  forms  of  punishment  gen- 
erally known  to  the  school  in  the  heyday  of  the  practice, 
each  teacher  was  a  law  unto  himself  and  as  a  result  there 
was  no  end  to  the  methods  adopted  to  inflict  pain  both  to 
bring  the  erring  one  back  to  the  paths  of  rectitude,  and  deter 
him  and  his  companions  from  again  leaving  the  straight  and 
narrow  path  for  the  alluring  call  of  the  activity  of  childhood 
and  youth  into  the  highway  and  byway.  In  general  we  re- 
gard as  punishments  anything  which  wilfully  applied  to  any 
one  causes  inconvenience,  displeasure  or  pain,  that  is  un- 
willingly born  and  that  is  intended  as  a  deterrent  from 
similar  conduct  in  the  future.  In  any  community  an  in- 
dividual is  free  to  apply  any  form  of  punishments  which  the 
public  sentiment  of  that  community  will  permit.  This  is 
an  uncertain  and  fluctuating  element  it  is  true,  yet  when  one 
uses  punitive  systems,  if  he  is  to  succeed  with  them  his  only 
hope  of  administering  them  is  to  have  either  the  active  sup- 
port or  passive  acquiescence  of  the  public  sentiment  of  his 
immediate  community.  The  kinds  of  punishment  admin- 
istered by  the  Swabian  school  master  Haberle,  mentioned 
above  might  be  included  here.  To  them  might  be  added 
various  forms  of  sitting  and  standing  postures  and  even  kneel- 
ing postures  with  or  without  extra  means  of  increasing  pain. 
The  application  of  blows  to  the  body  by  means  of  the  hands 


188  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

and  feet  and  other  artificially  improvised  instruments,  the 
assignment  of  various  tasks  in  school  or  out  and  during, 
before  or  after  school  hours,  these  three  groups  either  alone 
or  in  combination  will  include  most  of  the  forms  of  physical 
punishments  known  to  the  school.  Mental  punishments  also 
open  a  vast  field  to  the  teacher.  These  mostly  depend  for 
their  strength  on  the  social  feelings  of  the  individual,  the 
emotions  and  desires  that  owe  their  existence  to  the  fact 
of  the  group  life.  They  too  may  undergo  almost  infinite 
variations. 

a.  The  Reprimand.  Out  of  this  infinity  of  punishments 
that  are  thus  possible  and  the  myriad  that  are  known  to  have 
been  in  vogue  in  the  schoolroom  we  can  only  devote  a  brief 
word  to  a  few  which  because  of  their  importance  are  deemed 
worthy  of  consideration.  The  first  one  that  will  be  treated 
is  the  reprimand.  The  reprimand  is  one  of  the  commonest 
forms  of  punishment  in  use  in  the  schoolroom  to-day.  Like 
all  other  punishments  it  has  its  good  and  its  bad  uses.  Like 
others  also  its  virtue  lies  in  its  being  restricted  to  specific 
cases  and  in  its  being  dealt  out  sparingly.  Reprimand  in 
the  hand  of  an  unskilled  disciplinarian  may  sometimes  take 
the  form  of  a  threat  or  scolding.  At  once  it  loses  its  power 
for  good.  Under  any  and  all  circumstances  threats  have  been 
proved  to  be  productive  of  but  little  good.  Given  out  under 
strain  of  anger  or  excitment  and  amid  the  pressure  of  other 
duties  they  too  often  pass  out  of  thought  as  soon  as  the 
occasion  that  called  them  forth  has  ceased  to  exist.  When 
thus  treated  they  put  the  teacher  in  a  false  light  and  put  a 
premium  upon  bad  conduct,  by  fostering  the  belief  that  there 
is  little  possibility  of  punishment  following,  when  the  condi- 
tions for  the  administering  of  it  are  unfavorable.  The  other 
faulty  side  of  threats  is  that  they  invite  transgression. 
The  child  is  told  not  to  do  a  certain  thing  which  should 
be  sufficient,  but  instead  of  stopping  there  and  letting  his 
past  conduct  prove  what  will  follow  he  adds,  that  if  obedience 
is  not  forthcoming  such  and  such  punishments  will  follow. 
This  course  is  obverse  to  two  primary  pedagogical  principles. 
In  the  first  place  the  child  knows  if  punishment  is  to  follow 
just  what  it  is  going  to  be,  can  judge  as  to  whether  or  not 


Punishments  189 

he  is  willing  to  suffer  it,  and  put  himself  into  the  mental 
and  physical  attitude  to  receive  it.  Besides  it  gives  his 
mates  opportunity  to  tease  and  provoke  him  until  his  pride 
is  reached  with  a  new  train  of  reactions,  whereupon  the  pupil 
may  determine  upon  some  line  of  conduct  that  causes  the  in- 
fliction of  the  penalty  to  be  devoid  of  disciplinary  value,  or 
makes  its  infliction  difficult  and  hazardous  or  even  impossible. 
In  some  cases  it  has  caused  the  child  to  leave  school  or 
drawn  the  parents  and  school  authorities  into  the  affair. 
Upon  some  natures,  too,  threats  only  incite  to  action.  Hav- 
ing been  told  what  will  happen  the  pupil  sometimes  thinks 
it  his  right  to  show  all  either  that  this  particular  thing  will 
not  happen,  or  that  if  it  must  and  does  happen  he  determines 
that  both  teacher  and  pupils  shall  see  that  he  has  no  fear 
of  any  such  consequences,  a  dangerous  evidence  of  false 
courage. 

As  for  scolding  it  is  never  to  be  advised.  It  not  only  makes 
a  mere  prattler  out  of  the  teacher,  but  it  is  also  discouraging 
and  exasperating  to  the  pupil.  It  awakens  resentment  in 
the  pupil  and  causes  him  to  lose  both  respect  for  the  teacher 
and  confidence  in  him.  Upon  gentle  natures  it  has  a  pecu- 
liarly de-energizing  effect.  While  upon  stronger  tempera- 
ments it  falls  like  water  on  a  duck's  back.  A  few  instances 
are  on  record,  however,  where  a  severe  scolding  on  a  high 
plane,  not  low  vindictive  name  calling  and  fault  finding  has 
been  productive  of  highly  satisfactory  results.  This,  though, 
is  the  exception  and  not  the  rule  and  the  evil  effects  conse- 
quent in  the  wake  of  scolding  still  forbid  its  use  to  any  extent 
in  the  schoolroom. 

The  reprimand  itself  when  kept  from  turning  into  these 
two  forms  is  a  source  of  power  in  the  hands  of  a  skillful 
teacher,  and  is  very  effective  in  schoolroom  management. 
Reprimands  like  all  forms  of  punishments  should  be  brief,  and 
always  kind.  Their  sole  purpose  is  to  serve  as  a  deterrent 
and  a  reminder  to  both  malefactor  and  school  that  the  rules 
of  the  school  are  not  to  be  broken  and  if  broken  "  the  way 
of  the  transgressor  will  be  hard."  Reprimands  may  be 
either  public  or  private.  Public  reprimands  are  regarded 
by  all  from  the  very  principle  that  underlies  their  effective- 


190  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

ness  as  more  severe  than  private  reprimands.  Public  repri- 
mands while  justifiable  under  certain  conditions  should  be  as 
rare  as  possible,  for  fear  that  they  lose  their  sting  and  con- 
sequent disciplinary  value.  They  are  a  power  in  school  dis- 
cipline and  should  never  be  abused.  For  when  these  have 
lost  their  effectiveness  there  is  no  adequate  substitute  for 
them,  as  it  is  a  well  known  fact  that  usually  a  large  majority 
of  students  prefer  almost  any  kind  and  severity  of  punish- 
ment rather  than  a  reprimand,  especially  a  public  one. 

b.  Detention  and  the  Assignment  of  Tasks.  Detention 
after  school  and  the  assignment  of  tasks  either  before,  during 
or  after  school  are  methods  of  punishment  very  much  in  vogue. 
These,  too,  have  their  good  and  bad  sides,  the  latter  tending 
strongly  to  discount  them  rather  than  make  them  of  any 
merit.  The  chief  drawback  to  detention  after  school  is 
that  in  general  schoolrooms  are  not  often  fit  either  for  pupils 
or  teacher  after  school  hours.  Rooms  are  cold  and  ventila- 
tion as  well  as  light  is  bad  and  cannot  be  remedied,  ventila- 
tion, often  because  there  is  no  heat  to  create  a  circulation 
of  air,  and  light,  because  the  sun  is  mostly  too  low  in  the 
horizon  for  its  rays  to  possess  much  penetrative  or  light  giv- 
ing properties.  Besides  both  teacher  and  pupil  are  in  no 
fit  physical  condition  to  get  the  desired  effects  out  of  the 
punishment.  More  often  the  teacher  who  has  much  dis- 
cipline to  do  during  the  day  is  so  worn  out  that  the  punish- 
ment is  oftentimes  more  severe  upon  the  teacher  than  upon 
the  pupil.  Too  often  also  in  the  moments  of  reflection  after 
school  the  teacher  repents  and  the  pupil  is  dismissed  long 
before  the  expiration  of  the  time  of  detention  originally  an- 
nounced. The  pupil  soon  notices  this  fact  and  the  use  of 
detention  after  school  as  a  means  of  punishment  soon  loses 
its  efficiency  for  him  and  through  his  advertisement  of  it 
for  the  school.  A  good  plan  is  never  to  let  it  be  known  how 
long  the  child  is  to  be  detained.  Then  the  teacher  is  free 
to  dismiss  him  at  his  will  without  thereby  compromising  him- 
self. In  general,  though,  long  detentions  after  school  hours 
are  inadvisable  under  any  circumstances.  They  often  af- 
fect the  outside  duties  of  the  pupils,  under  which  circum- 
stances the  teacher  comes  in  for  an  unfair  amount  of  adverse 


Punishments  191 

criticism,  too  often,  in  the  presence  of  the  child.  It  is 
much  more  advisable  for  the  teacher  in  such  cases  to  visit  the 
child's  parents  or  guardian  and  to  seek  aid  there.  At  times 
summary  corporal  punishment  may  be  substituted  for  lengthy 
detentions  with  wholesome  effects.  Many  school  boards  be- 
cause of  the  abuse  of  this  method  of  punishment  by  exasper- 
ated teachers  and  the  continued  complaint  of  parents  against 
it  have  made  explicit  rules  regulating  the  practice  and  limit- 
ing it  otherwise.  In  general  noon  recess  hours  are  incon- 
venient for  detention  both  to  pupil  and  teacher  and  are 
accordingly  legislated  against.  In  the  evening  there  is  a 
maximum  limit  established  by  many  school  boards. 

The  assignment  of  tasks  as  a  means  of  punishment  is  not 
so  common,  the  chief  danger  from  them  being  the  likelihood 
of  the  child  associating  the  unpleasantness  here  developed 
in  the  performance  of  the  task  with  the  task  itself  and  not 
as  was  intended  with  the  wrong  done.  In  which  case  a  dislike 
for  study,  or  for  that  particular  study  is  fostered,  the  very 
thing  that  was  not  desired.  The  virtue  of  the  method  then 
will  be  seen  to  be  limited  chiefly  to  those  cases  where  the 
task  assigned  is  an  unperformed  school  task.  Even  then 
it  is  best  when  it  is  a  task  in  which  the  pupil  is  a  poor  student 
and  the  task  to  be  done  necessary  for  the  further  progress 
of  the  child  in  his  advance  work  with  the  class.  For  the 
work  of  the  school  to  be  at  its  best,  to  be  pleasurably,  well 
and  willingly  done  it  ought,  if  possible,  never  be  allowed  to 
descend  to  the  level  of  a  distasteful  task. 

Corporal  Punishment  is  the  great  bone  of  contention  in 
the  schoolroom  discipline.  There  are  ardent  advocates  of 
it  and  equally  ardent  opponents  to  it.  Whatever  may  ap- 
pear to  have  been  said  against  it  here  is  not  intended  to  ad- 
vocate its  abolishment,  but  rather  to  bring  about  its  re- 
stricted use  in  the  schoolroom.  It  is  a  kind  of  punishment 
that  is  easily  applied  by  all.  Because  of  this  it  is  quite  likely 
to  be  abused  in  its  use.  It  is  only  the  abuses  of  it  that  we 
cry  out  against.  Children  are  in  the  formative  period. 
They  exhibit  many  tendencies  that  are  unsocial  and  even 
dangerous  to  the  social  equilibrium,  many  of  their  tendencies 
are  anarchistic  and  even  annihilistic,  which  if  allowed  to 


192  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

develop  will  bring  untold  misery  and  suffering  upon  humanity. 
These  tendencies  must  be  overcome  at  all  hazards.  In  their 
incipiency  they  may  be  uprooted  easily.  But  if  left  to  grow 
to  their  full  strength  and  maturity  it  may  be  necessary  to 
destroy  the  individual  in  order  to  nullify  the  tendency.  It 
would  obviously  be  an  abused  system  of  punishment  which 
hesitated  for  a  moment  to  inflict  severe  corporal  punishment 
rather  than  run  the  risk  by  a  method  of  false  kindness  and 
misplaced  sympathy  to  allow  these  tendencies  to  get  firmly 
rooted  in  the  "  nature  "  of  an  individual.  The  "  whys  and 
wherefors  "  of  corporal  punishment  as  well  as  the  conditions 
under  which  it  should  be  inflicted  together  with  its  justifica- 
tion and  dangers  have  already  been  given.  These  circum- 
stances failing  the  resort  to  corporal  punishment  is  justi- 
fiable. Every  individual  born  recapitulates  in  brief  the  life 
history  of  the  race.  He  comes  into  the  world  a  type  of  all 
of  the  former  savagery  of  his  race,  no  matter  how  advanced 
the  society  may  be  into  which  he  is  born.  All  of  his  savage 
tendencies  —  and  he  has  them  galore  —  have  to  be  curbed, 
controlled  and  either  eradicated  or  directed.  If  he  is  to  be- 
come a  member  of  this  advanced  society  all  of  his  unsocial 
tendencies  and  instincts  have  to  be  removed  at  all  costs. 
Any  savage  traits  appearing  and  left  to  develop  unchecked 
will  tend  to  unsocialize  him  and  take  him  back  to  the  savage, 
de-civilize  him.  Children  have  little  or  no  concrete  knowl- 
edge of  relations  or  of  consequences.  We  who  have  such 
knowledge  must  regulate  their  conduct  for  them.  Heredity 
is  a  biological  principle.  Biological  change  is  slow ;  it  comes 
only  after  long  periods  of  time.  To  think  then  that  the 
children  of  the  cultured  will  all  have  natural  tendencies  to 
culture  is  evidently  an  error.  At  least,  whatever  tendencies 
they  have  in  this  direction,  which  are  incidental,  are  sub- 
ordinate to  those  of  the  tendencies  of  the  race,  which  are 
fundamental.  Personally  the  author  favors  a  regulative 
and  punitive  system  that  is  in  harmony  with  real  life.  A 
child  should  early  learn  both  in  the  home  and  the  school 
that  which  he  will  meet  in  life.  Not  to  the  extent  of  ruining 
or  destroying  him  but  to  the  extent  of  saving  him.  Any 
pettyfogging  home  or  school  system  of  penalties  that  out 


Punishments  193 

of  fear  or  kindness  allows  a  child  to  grow  up  uncontrolled, 
ungoverned  and  unamenable  to  law  is  a  disgrace  to  itself, 
and  the  school  which  does  so  has  forfeited  its  justification 
for  its  existence  and  support  and  should  be  "  recalled." 
The  theory  that  education  should  be  pleasant,  interesting 
and  the  system  to  the  child's  liking  is  all  very  good  and  even 
desirable  as  an  abstract  ideal.  But  those  who  place  the  re- 
sponsibility for  attaining  this  ideal  on  the  teacher,  even, 
assuming,  that  all  teachers  are  perfect  in  their  profession, 
have  no  knowledge  either  of  child  nature  or  of  human  na- 
ture if  they  expect  them  to  accomplish  the  desired  ends 
without  a  rigid  system  of  penalties.  Children  are  worlds 
unto  themselves  and  oftentimes  more  complicated  in  their 
action  and  reaction  than  teachers.  Now  when  other  means 
fail  to  beget  certain  kinds  of  responses  physical  stimuli  must 
be  applied  to  control  and  direct  the  action  of  one  child  toward 
another.  While  every  child  is  not  a  direct  offspring  of  his 
satanic  majesty  himself,  he  is  also  not  the  image  of  the  babe 
Christ,  but  is  more  than  likely  somewhere  between  these  ex- 
tremes. Wherever  he  stands  the  teacher  must  take  him,  get 
acquainted  with  him  and  then  make  of  him  a  being  fit  for 
society  by  imparting  to  him  knowledge  and  instilling  into 
him  modes  of  conduct  in  the  forms  of  physical  and  mental 
action  and  reaction.  This  child  has  both  an  intellect  and 
a  will.  Both  of  which  will  have  to  be  reckoned  with  in  every 
form  of  caprice  known  to  man  and  devil.  Here  lies  the 
problem.     To  solve  it  will  require  both  staff  and  rod. 

c.  Suspension  and  Expulsion.  Both  of  these  methods  of 
punishment  are  to  be  the  means  of  last  resort.  With  children 
under  the  school  age  limit  they  are  impossible  because  of  the 
compulsory  school  law.  Only  when  all  other  means  of  con- 
trol have  been  exhausted  and  the  best  good  of  the  school 
demands  it  should  it  be  tried.  It  puts  the  child  out  of  reach 
of  the  sphere  and  influence  of  the  school  and  is  only  justi- 
fiable when  either  the  school  can  do  the  pupil  no  more  good 
or  he  is  such  a  disturbing  element  in  the  school  that  he 
threatens  the  welfare  of  the  school,  or  both.  So  serious  is 
the  question  of  suspension  or  expulsion  that  in  most  cases 
no  teacher  is  allowed  the  free  exercise  of  the  power.     Gener- 


1 


94  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 


ally  it  is  only  possible  with  the  consent  of  the  principal  or 
superintendent,  or  both.  This  does  not  apply  to  older  pu- 
pils who  are  presumed  to  have  reached  the  age  of  responsi- 
bility and  to  know  what  the  consequences  of  their  acts  will  be. 
Even  in  these  cases  best  good  demands  that  every  other  ap- 
peal be  made  to  a  pupil  before  resorting  to  suspension  or  ex- 
pulsion. Of  the  two  expulsion  is  the  more  severe.  It 
excludes  a  pupil  from  school  for  a  school  term  general^, 
while  suspension  excludes  him  for  any  length  of  time  less 
than  such.  Most  cases  of  suspension  range  between  the 
period  of  a  week  to  a  month.  It  has  been  argued  that  ex- 
pulsion may  be  for  any  length  that  the  school  authorities 
may  name.  But  it  is  generally  conceded  that  its  limit  of 
enforcement  is  for  one  year. 

Witnesses  to  Punishment.  Experience  has  taught  that 
the  teacher  who  is  responsible  for  the  enforcement  of  a  rule 
that  is  broken  should  inflict  the  punishment,  if  the  best  re- 
sults in  discipline  are  to  be  obtained  and  the  teacher  is  to 
retain  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  in  enforcing  school  laws. 
Many  school  boards  and  superintendents  have  rules  that 
only  the  principal  may  inflict  corporal  punishments.  These 
are  without  a  doubt  wise  regulations  and  have  their  justi- 
fication in  the  fact  that  in  the  public  schools  most  of  the 
teachers  are  women  who  because  of  their  weak  physical  na- 
tures are  incapable  of  successfully  administering  punish- 
ment to  the  older  and  stronger  recalcitrant  pupils,  while 
the  principals  are  generally  men  with  sufficient  physical 
strength  to  enforce  the  school  regulations  in  all  of  the  or- 
dinary cases.  Another  reason  for  such  regulations  is  that 
the  principal  is  generally  a  more  experienced  disciplinarian 
and  should  know  more  means  of  effectively  administering 
punishments.  Again  he  does  not  experience  the  constant 
contact  with  the  pupils  that  the  teacher  does.  Not  knowing 
him  then  there  is  a  tendency  for  them  to  both  fear  and  respect 
him.  Another  good  point  in  favor  of  this  method  is  that 
the  principal  is  less  likely  to  inflict  punishment  under  provo- 
cation or  anger,  or  be  moved  by  personal  feeling  or  malice. 
Too  he  will  have  the  time  to  reason  with  the  individual  with- 


Punishments  195 

out  prejudice  or  preconceived  bias.  Oftentimes,  however, 
it  becomes  necessary  for  teachers  to  administer  corporal 
punishment  without  calling  in  the  principal.  In  such  cases 
this  should  be  done.  It  has  a  salutary  effect  upon  the 
school  and  gives  the  teacher  ordinarily  increased  power  to 
control.  For  where  the  pupil  is  punished  by  the  principal 
especially  if  the  teacher  is  absent  the  pupil  feels  that  the 
teacher  is  not  a  party  to  the  punishment  and  in  fact  knows 
but  little  of  it  and  as  a  result  he  may  feel  free  to  commit 
fresh  crimes,  especially  if  he  is  of  the  temperament  to  be 
easily  goaded  by  the  taunts  of  his  fellows. 

Punishments  before  the  whole  school  should  be  rare.  Too 
much  care  cannot  be  exercised  in  the  inflicting  of  public 
corporal  punishment,  if  there  is  any  sentiment  in  the  com- 
munity against  it.  Such  sentiment  exists  to  a  more  or  less 
degree  in  almost  every  community.  Wherever  such  a  senti- 
ment is  pronounced  either  in  the  community  or  the  home  the 
pupils  soon  learn  how  to  take  advantage  of  it  for  their  own 
benefit.  It  is  surprising,  too,  in  how  man}-  ways  they  can 
turn  it  to  account.  When  they  become  witnesses  to  acts  of 
corporal  punishment  they  are  quite  apt  innocently  to  get 
distorted  and  enlarged  ideas  of  the  intensity  of  the  pun- 
ishment inflicted  and  exaggerate  it  either  with  or  without 
evil  intent,  to  outsiders.  In  such  cases  it  will  be  always  ad- 
visable for  the  teacher  to  take  special  precautionary  measures 
to  see  that  no  overt  act  of  his  shall  give  credence  to  such 
reports.  Care  ma}'  be  exercised  for  example  in  the  selection 
of  instruments  of  punishment  and  in  choosing  the  parts  of 
the  body  for  receiving  the  punishment.  Sensitive  or  vital 
parts  of  the  body  should  be  avoided.  Those  instruments 
also  that  have  ugly  associations  such  as  rawhides,  various 
forms  and  sizes  of  whips,  pointers  and  especially  all  forms 
of  weapons  that  will  break  easily  should  be  let  alone.  If 
teachers  have  reasons  to  fear  unfair  or  unreasonable  censure 
it  is  better  in  such  cases  to  have  a  fellow  teacher  or  some 
one  else  in  authority  and  in  sympathy  with  the  work  present 
as  a  witness  if  for  no  other  reason  than  as  a  protective  meas- 
ure.    Besides  a  fellow  teacher,  some  other  person  in  authority 


196  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

such  as  the  principal,  superintendent  or  even  a  member  of 
the  board  or  one  of  the  commissioners  who  is  friendly  may 
be  called  in  as  a  witness.  Though  also  sometimes  good  may 
result  by  having  parents  come  in  and  administer  or  assist  in 
administering  punishment  the  practice  in  general  is  to  be 
condemned,  as  it  weakens  the  teacher's  control  over  the 
pupils  and  often  invites  the  interference  of  parents  where 
their  interference  is  not  only  not  desired  but  may  be  even 
dangerous. 

But  witnesses  or  no  witnesses  there  are  certain  forms  of 
corporal  punishments  that  are  not  to  be  indulged  in,  though 
if  forced  to  the  defensive  teachers  must  do  whatever  the 
situation  demands.  Punishments  that  descend  to  the  plane 
of  brutality  are  always  to  be  condemned.  Corporal  pun- 
isments  that  disturb  bodily  functions  or  cause  lasting  injury 
or  excessive  and  long  enduring  pain  beyond  the  degree  to 
correct  and  deter  fall  under  this  same  black  list,  as  do  all 
indiscriminate  uses  of  the  hand  on  the  body  or  limbs  of  the 
child.  In  this  relation  boxes  on  the  ear  as  endangering  the 
sense  of  hearing  and  slaps  on  the  cheek  or  anywhere  in  the 
face,  as  dangerous  to  the  nose  and  eyes,  or  mouth,  as  having 
the  danger  of  disfiguration,  all  fall  under  the  above  as 
tabooed  methods  of  punishment  in  the  schoolroom.  All  forms 
of  physical  punishments  that  cause  excessive  strain  or  pain 
in  the  limbs  or  other  parts  of  the  body  have  been  condemned 
by  modern  pedagogy  as  unhygienic  and  filled  with  invisible 
dangers  physiologically.  In  all  such  cases,  however,  the 
critical  situation  is  the  teacher's  and  he  must  master  it,  if 
he  is  to  hold  his  own  and  do  his  work.  This  first  and  last, 
but  with  it  all  at  all  times  are  to  be  associated  the  demands 
of  the  individual,  the  school,  the  community,  the  state  and 
society.  He  is  to  give  the  situation  the  best,  the  noblest 
and  the  highest  that  is  in  him,  but  first  and  last  he  must  be 
master,  he  must  rule,  direct,  instruct,  and  teach,  without  any 
form  of  punishment  if  possible  but  with  them  if  necessary. 

REFERENCE  READING 

Compayre's  "  Psychology  Applied  to  Education."    Chap.  XIV. 
O'Shea's  "Social  Development  and  Education."    Chap.  XV. 


Punishments  197 

Arnold's  "  School  and  Class  Management."     Chap.  VI,  Sect.  5,  VII. 
Perry's  "  Management  of  a  City  School."     Chaps.  VIII,  IX. 
Dinsmore's  "  Teaching  a  District  School."     Chaps.  X,  VI. 
Baldwin's  "School  Management  and  School  Methods."     Chap.  XIV. 
Fitch's  "Lectures  on  Teaching."     Chaps.  XV,  IV. 
White's  "School  Management."     P.  190. 

See  also  references  to  chapters  on  Discipline  and  Schoolroom  Super- 
vision. 


CHAPTER  IX 
INCENTIVES  AND  STIMULANTS  IN  EDUCATION 

Besides  being  both  a  reformative  and  a  deterrent  in  forms  of 
conduct,  punishments  are  a  stimulant  to  activity  in  educa- 
tion. At  least  it  should  be  in  the  capacity  of  the  former 
that  punishments  should  function  in  the  schoolroom  routine, 
while  other  means  that  appeal  to  something  higher  in  the 
subject  than  mere  bodily  pain  or  mental  discomfort  should 
serve  as  an  exciting  agent  or  stimulant  to  arouse  interest 
and  spur  on  the  will  so  as  to  tide  the  pupil  safely  over  the 
rough  and  unpleasant  places  in  the  school  life.  For,  just 
as  the  normal  body  enjoys  healthful  exercise  for  a  time,  but 
after  a  brief  period  of  activity  requires  also  another  period 
for  rest,  recuperation  and  a  re-storing  of  the  bodily  energy 
used  up  in  action,  so  does  the  mind  after  like  periods  of  activ- 
ity grow  weary  and  require  corresponding  periods  of  rest  and 
recuperation.  In  like  manner  just  as  there  are  times  in  the 
history  of  bodily  activity,  when  for  the  good  of  the  organism, 
as  well  as  for  the  good  of  other  organisms  like  itself  and 
dependent  upon  itself  it  is  necessary  for  the  body  both  to 
possess  and  at  times  employ  means  of  producing  activity 
when  weary  and  even  when  almost  exhausted,  in  order  that 
the  organism  itself  and  other  organisms  related  to  and  per- 
haps dependent  upon  it  might  exist,  so  in  the  case  of  the  in- 
tellect it  is  necessary  that  there  exist  means,  when  it  is  tired 
and  disposed  to  rest,  of  enforcing  upon  it  activity  at  the 
cost  of  inconvenience,  discomfort  and  even  pain,  in  order 
that  the  best  good  or  continued  activity  of  the  intellect  itself 
or  of  other  intellects  dependent  upon  or  closely  related  to  it 
might  continue  to  exist  and  function. 

In  the  case  of  the  intellect,  this  source  of  enforcing  activity 
when  necessary  to  gain  a  distant  or  remote  end,  whether 
fully  realized  or  not,  is  the  will.     When  the  individual  can- 

198 


Incentives  and  Stimulants  in  Education  199 

not  fully  realize  or  appreciate  an  end  in  action  because  it  is 
remote  it  responds  but  feebly  to  a  will  that  compels  also 
feebly.  In  such  cases  action  must  be  engendered  by  those 
properly  empowered  with  rights  to  arouse  the  will  to  action 
by  stimulants,  who  do  see  and  appreciate  the  value  in  the 
enconomy  of  life  of  these  distant  ends.  This  is  the  case 
in  matters  of  education  and  it  is  upon  this  that  the  right 
is  granted.  In  the  minds  of  the  pupils  most  of  the  ends 
of  education  are  secondary  and  remote.  As  such  they  are 
but  little  appreciated  by  those  who  come  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  school.  Consequently  those  charged  with 
responsibility  for  getting  certain  results  in  the  school  proc- 
esses must  either  substitute  temporary  and  immediate  ends 
that  can  be  readily  appreciated  or  use  various  forms  of  stimu- 
lants to  arouse  the  will  to  action  where  the  ends  themselves 
because  remote  fail  to  do  so.  The  will  may  be  aroused  to 
action  by  stimulants  working  internally  or  externally. 
These  stimulants  are  either  natural  or  artificial.  The  nat- 
ural stimulants  to  intellectual  action  are  the  same  as  the 
natural  stimulants  to  any  form  of  human  action,  and  as  a 
fact  of  knowledge  are  as  old  as  the  science  of  mind  itself 
and  has  developed  concomitantly  with  the  development  of 
the  knowledge  which  that  science  has  brought  us.  These 
natural  stimulants  are  the  emotions,  motives  and  desires  as 
aroused  by  things  which  by  nature  in  and  of  themselves  are 
stimulative  to  action.  The  knowledge  of  artificial  stimu- 
lants unlike  their  counterparts,  the  natural  stimulants,  have 
developed  chiefly  along  with  the  science  of  pedagogy.  In 
actual  practice  it  appears  that  the  artificial  stimulants 
though  less  lasting  in  their  effects  and  the  success  they  bring, 
are  more  in  use  and  oftentimes  more  effective  where  used 
than  the  natural  stimulants. 

Artificial  stimulants  to  intellectual  activity  are  generally 
grouped  under  the  one  head  of  rewards,  but  are  more  often 
considered  under  the  more  special  heads  of  prizes,  privileges 
and  immunities.  The  chief  reason  for  the  effectiveness  and 
practical  value  of  prizes  is  that  they  are  easily  accessible  and 
besides  being  something  tangible  that  furnishes  immediate 
pleasure   to   the   body   and   mind   are   more   concrete   than 


200  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

privileges  and  immunities  which  are  therefore  less  effective 
and  have  less  of  practical  value  in  them.  The  appeal  to  these 
stimulants  and  corresponding  dependence  upon  them  for  re- 
sults in  educative  processes,  have  both  a  good  and  a  bad  side. 
The  artificial  stimulants  as  was  said  above  are  more  com- 
monly in  use  and  more  effective  for  immediate  results  though 
the  natural  stimulants  are  to  be  more  preferred  because  their 
effects  though  more  difficult  to  obtain  are  more  lasting  and 
far-reaching  when  once  they  are  obtained. 

The  Nature  and  Justification  of  Rewards.  The  custom 
of  giving  rewards  in  the  forms  of  prizes,  privileges  and  im- 
munities is  an  intricate  part  of  our  social  and  political 
system  of  government  as  well  as  of  that  of  our  systems  of 
education.  Inasmuch,  therefore,  as  the  school  is  supposed 
to  fit  one  for  life  in  the  world  of  action  about  him  and  inas- 
much as  educational  institutions  reflect  both  social  and  po- 
litical institutions  in  the  ends  they  seek  to  attain,  not  only 
will  many  of  the  practices  of  social  and  political  institutions 
be  found  in  the  school  but  except  in  a  few  minor  details  in 
which  the  ideals  of  the  school  will  be  apart  from  that  of 
the  state  and  society,  the  practices  of  the  former  will  be 
heartily  approved  and  assiduously  taught  in  the  latter,  for 
the  perpetuation  of  which  through  instruction  in  it  the  school 
receives  its  first  and  primarily  commissioned  duty.  This 
practice  therefore  receives  general  sanction  and  has  become 
a  commonplace  if  not  indeed  a  necessity  in  our  educational 
systems.  The  efforts  of  the  school  may  be  and  indeed  should 
be  toward  so  restricting  it  as  to  keep  it  on  a  high  plane 
and  remove  from  it  whatever  of  the  unmoral  it  may  have  re- 
ceived in  practice.  The  problem  in  education  as  already 
stated  lies  in  the  fact  that  its  ends  are  remote  and  mostly 
abstract.  The  child  with  which  the  school  deals  is  incapable 
of  either  conceiving  or  undertaking  to  attain  these  ends 
except  in  a  vague  and  indefinite  manner.  The  moment,  there- 
fore, the  schoolwork  becomes  the  least  bit  irksome  and  force 
either  physical  or  mental  is  applied  to  urge  the  child  on  in 
his  work  the  reason  for  it  and  the  end  it  will  serve  in  his  life 
are  called  into  question  by  him.  The  fact  of  his  competency 
or  incompetency  to  properly  pass  judgment  upon  it  never 


Incentives  and  Stimulants  in  Education  201 

becomes  a  part  of  the  issue.  When  this  time  arrives,  there 
must  be  something  tangible  in  the  form  of  ends  presented 
by  the  school  to  satisfy  this  demand,  or  the  whole  system, 
of  which  this  is  a  part,  is  condemned  by  the  child  as  useless 
and  becomes  a  process  in  life  to  be  avoided  as  an  obstruction 
to  his  wishes  and  desires,  the  necessity  for  which  is  generally 
to  him  inexplicable.  This  demand  the  school  must  satisfy. 
To  this  end  it  has  created  the  system  of  rewards  and  pun- 
ishments in  order  to  hold  the  child  while  the  intermediate 
processes  leading  to  the  more  remote  end  are  being  success- 
fully carried  on.  This  is  perhaps  a  most  important  reason 
for  the  presence  in  schoolwork  of  both  forms  of  stimulants. 
Humanitarians  and  all  moral  workers  with  men  find  it  difficult 
to  get  matured  individuals  to  labor  long  for  distant  ends. 
If  such  is  the  case  with  the  mature  upon  whom  life's  re- 
sponsibilities fall  with  much  increased  intensity,  how  much 
more  difficult  will  it  be  to  attain  these  ends  with  children  who 
have  not  yet  felt  or  appreciated  the  intensity  of  life's  re- 
sponsibilities. 

The  purpose  of  rewards  is  to  give  incentive  to  action. 
Experience  has  shown  that  neither  children  nor  grown  ups 
will  long  pursue  good  for  its  own  sake.  Rewards,  however, 
are  only  a  temporary  incentive  to  action.  Herein  lies  their 
chief  danger  as  well  as  the  unfortunate  need  of  their  con- 
stant renewal  and  change  to  maintain  their  force  as  stimu- 
lants. However,  they  may  be  made  into  a  system  such 
that,  if  they  are  carefully  administered,  much  of  the  demand 
for  various  punishments  to  aid  in  the  attainments  of  the 
more  distant  ends  of  education  may  be  done  away  with. 
Rewards  receive  their  power  from  the  fact  that  they  awaken 
new  and  vivid  emotions  and  desires  and  connect  in  a  pleasur- 
able manner  achievement  with  the  efforts  of  labor.  Without 
stimulants  experience  has  proven  that  there  is  no  motive  to 
effort.  Remove  from  labor  the  motive  and  you  rob  it  of 
its  flavor.  "  Just  as  the  object  of  punishment  is  to  establish 
in  the  child's  mind  an  association  of  ideas  between  the  fault 
committed  and  suffering  or  privation;  so  the  reward  is  in- 
tended to  connect  the  idea  of  a  duty  accomplished  with  that 
of   the  pleasure   which   results   from   it,"  writes   Compayre. 


£02  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

Like  all  other  school  methods  the  use  of  rewards  is  capable 
of  abuse  and  as  such  is  to  be  most  rigidly  condemned.  Like 
punishments  also,  their  value  rests  in  their  use  with  tact  and 
discretion.  It  has  been  found  out  that  the  receiving  of  re- 
wards tends  to  create  vanity  in  the  recipient  and  jealousy 
upon  the  part  of  the  other  members  of  the  school  by  de- 
veloping in  the  school  as  a  whole  dangerous  motives  and  de- 
sires. Too  often,  also  in  the  continued  offering  of  rewards 
for  work  or  conduct  both  pupils  and  teacher  lose  sight  of 
the  distant  end  of  education  in  the  receiving  and  awarding 
of  rewards.  The  habit  has  very  frequently  been  known  to 
engender  a  false  standard  in  the  pupil.  The  pupils  under 
such  a  system  too  often  get  to  working  for  the  reward  in- 
stead of  for  the  real  end  of  educational  effort,  knowledge, 
skill  and  ability.  This  is  often  the  case  when  rewards 
possess  much  intrinsic  value.  It  has  been  found  a  good  ex- 
pedient at  times  in  these  matters  to  have  all  rewards  get 
their  chief  value  from  their  relation  to  the  ends  desired, 
rather  than  from  any  quality  inherent  in  the  object  itself. 
In  all  that  is  said  about  the  giving  of  rewards  the  fact  must 
not  be  overlooked  that  care  should  be  taken  that  the  reward 
is  placed  fairly  within  the  reach  of  all  and  each  and  every 
one  should  be  encouraged  to  feel  that  he  possesses  equal 
chances  for  it,  if  he  will  do  his  work  according  to  instruc- 
tion and  directions.  Closely  following  this  announcement 
and  encouragement  to  compete,  the  conditions  of  awarding 
them  should  be  so  made  as  to  really  make  the  chances  of  all 
equal. 

Prizes.  In  the  giving  of  prizes  there  are  two  essential 
qualities  that  should  always  characterize  the  act.  In  the 
first  place  prizes  should  represent  real,  conscious  and  pro- 
longed effort.  If  they  fail  to  call  forth  this  their  basic  end, 
that  of  stimulation  to  action,  their  effect  is  lost,  whereupon 
they  react  to  defeat  their  own  end.  The  association  of 
effort  with  the  gaining  of  the  prize  is  the  only  natural  pleas- 
ure that  is  to  be  derived  from  its  winning.  In  the  second 
place  prizes  should  represent  real  achievement,  real  progress 
made  along  the  line  of  the  endeavor.  Though  it  is  not  al- 
ways possible  to  do  so,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  thing 


Incentives  and  Stimulants  in  Education  £03 

achieved,  the  progress  made,  should  not  be  lost  sight  of  by 
the  individual  gaining  it  but  it  should  become  a  permanent 
part  of  the  child's  mental  and  moral  possessions.  Too  often 
these  essentials  are  overlooked  entirely  or  forced  far  into 
the  background  while  details  much  less  permanent  and  bene- 
ficial to  the  child  are  substituted.  In  the  giving  of  prizes 
it  is  customary  to  use  medals  fittingly  inscribed  (and  even 
without  inscription)  and  books.  Though  there  is  in  the 
act  itself  no  essential  need  of  restriction  of  the  practice  to 
these  two  classes  of  prizes.  One  of  the  things  desired  in 
giving  prizes  is  that  the  prize  shall  be  lasting.  This  is 
especially  true  of  medals.  The  essential  element  of  a  prize 
other  than  its  durability  is  that  it  shall  afford  intimate 
association  with  and  relation  to  the  acts  which  won  it. 
Money  is  objectionable  as  a  prize  because  of  the  tendency 
too  often  with  it  to  becloud  the  real  end,  and  the  motive  in 
awarding  becomes  an  end  in  itself.  Money  may  be  and 
often  is  made  into  a  medal  and  with  the  simple  medal  may  be 
preserved  as  a  relic  of  school  days  and  early  achievement  and 
as  such  may  be  kept  as  a  family  heirloom.  Books  on  the 
other  hand  are  to  be  particularly  recommended  as  prizes, 
because  they  gain  their  value  from  the  knowledge  they  con- 
tain, the  inspiration  and  ideals  they  foster,  their  freedom 
from  all  tendency  to  turn  the  mind  of  the  recipient  away 
from  the  real  end  for  which  the  prize  was  originally  awarded, 
their  variety  and  the  small  expense  attached  to  procuring 
them.  Too,  the  giving  of  prizes  must  be  sufficiently  infre- 
quent and  the  prizes  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be  always  desired 
and  worth  putting  forth  the  effort  required  to  attain  them. 
The  success  of  awarding  prizes  depends  apart  from  the 
intrinsic  characteristics  just  mentioned  also  upon  the  time, 
place  and  circumstances  of  their  awarding.  There  is  con- 
siderable danger  for  example  in  the  public  awarding  of 
prizes.  The  visitors  are  too  often  unacquainted  with  that 
for  which  the  prize  was  offered,  what  is  meant  to  be  gained 
by  the  teacher  in  offering  them  and  what  it  is  intended 
thereby  to  do  for  the  pupils  who  are  working  for  the  prize. 
In  the  absence  of  this  information  fictitious  ends  are  sub- 
stituted for  the  real  ones  and  the  rewards  themselves  thereby 


204  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

gain  secondary  values  that  are  often  very  dangerous  to  the 
welfare  both  of  pupil  and  teacher.  It  is  at  the  point  where 
outsiders  become  interested  in  the  nature  of  the  prizes,  their 
winning  and  awarding  that  the  wrong  spirit  is  likely  to  be 
instilled  into  the  pupils  and  the  effort  to  win  the  prize  be- 
come at  bottom  the  effort  of  one  family  to  gain  outward 
evidence  of  excellence  and  superiority  over  another  family. 
At  this  point  prize  awarding  in  the  school  may  engender 
the  bitterest  kind  of  feeling.  It  may  then  become  an  occa- 
sion when  every  act  of  the  teacher,  whether  justly  so  or 
not,  comes  in  for  severe  criticisms  and  antagonisms,  which 
may  result  in  the  loss  of  position  by  the  teacher  or  maybe 
the  beginning  of  lasting  animosity  in  the  community.  How- 
ever, where  prizes  are  for  results  where  the  assistance  of  out- 
siders is  desired  it  is  justifiable  to  award  the  prizes  in  their 
presence  and  even  to  let  them  know  beforehand  that  presents 
will  be  awarded  for  such.  This  is  particularly  advisable  for 
such  as  the  family,  friends  or  community  residents  who  can 
aid  in  effecting  a  remedy  for  good  attendance  and  punctu- 
ality, or,  where  the  outsiders  have  control  over  the  accom- 
plishing of  the  desired  end.  Many  authors  advocate  giving 
prizes  for  work  which  was  done  by  the  pupil  without  a  knowl- 
edge that  a  reward  was  to  follow  the  successful  completion 
of  a  given  kind  or  piece  of  work. 

While  at  first  sight  this  may  not  seem  to  be  fair  to  all  in 
that  the  pupil  has  not  had  a  warning  to  prepare  himself  and 
be  at  his  best,  it  is  to  be  commended  because  it  strikes  at 
that  which  was  fundamental  in  the  end  of  giving  rewards, 
namely,  the  general  excellence  of  the  pupil  and  constancy 
in  maintaining  effective  work  in  the  routine  and  class  work 
of  the  room.  What  is  desired  in  offering  prizes  in  the 
school  is  effective  work  and  most  surely  those  who  work 
along  steadily  without  any  knowledge  that  they  are  to  be 
especially  rewarded  for  their  work,  but  do  it  willingly  and 
well  at  all  times  are  to  be  encouraged.  The  fact  of  the 
matter  is  that  this  spirit  is  the  very  one  desired  and  to  be 
rewarded.  This  being  the  very  attainment  for  which  the 
prizes  were  originally  offered,  for  which  the  act  itself  was 
thought  out,  introduced  and  continued  and  as  such  should 


Incentives  and  Stimulants  in  Education  205 

by  no  means  be  overlooked  or  neglected.  The  whole  school 
should  be  encouraged  in  every  way  to  work  without  thought 
of  other  reward  than  the  mere  gaining  of  knowledge  and 
the  formation  of  good  habits  of  thought  and  action.  When, 
then,  incidentally,  rewards  come  in  the  steady  and  unselfish 
pursuit  of  the  end  of  education  it  would  be  joyfully  received 
and  have  a  salutary  effect  upon  the  school.  Results  are 
always  best  when  effort  is  put  forth  without  the  thought  of 
any  form  of  immediate  or  tangible  reward.  When  this  end 
cannot  be  gained  without  prize  giving,  then  some  other  stimu- 
lant than  prize  giving  is  in  order  for  things  are  wrong  in 
such  a  school  at  bottom  and  the  school  needs  a  regenera- 
tion and  reorganization. 

Prize  giving  is  sanctioned  by  good  usage  everywhere  but 
must  be  kept  on  a  high  plane  and  never  be  so  frequent,  or  of 
such  nature  or  value  as  to  encompass  the  fading  into  the 
background  of  the  real  end  of  education  and  all  forms  of 
school  processes.  In  education  prizes  are  means  to  ends 
and  can  never  become  anything  else,  if  the  real  end  of  the 
school  and  its  processes  is  to  be  kept  constantly  in  view  and 
finally  attained. 

Privileges.  The  granting  of  privileges  is  a  common 
method  of  rewarding  labor  and  achievement  in  the  public 
schools.  It  may  take  the  form  of  granting  a  partial  holiday 
for  the  achievement  of  some  particularly  desirable  but  dif- 
ficult piece  of  work,  with  an  excursion  into  the  woods  when 
the  season  is  appropriate  and  every  impulse  within  us  and  all 
nature  without  bids  us  abandon  the  confinement  of  the  school 
and  enjoy  the  beautiful  flowers  and  the  healthful  sunshine. 
It  may  take  the  form  of  bestowing  the  rights  of  the  honor 
seat  or  the  place  of  honor  at  the  head  of  the  class  for  the 
highest  excellence  in  work  in  some  one  or  several  groups  of 
subjects.  In  many  schools,  where  there  are  private  libraries, 
books  are  loaned  to  students  who  combine  accuracy  with 
speed,  which  they  may  read  while  the  class  as  a  whole  is 
completing  the  exercise.  Where  special  reading  courses  are 
outlined  this  time  may  well  be  given  over  to  the  reading  of 
such  works.  In  special  libraries  of  current  literature,  where 
such  magazines  as  the  Youth's  Companion,  St.  Nicholas  or 


206  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

other  hightone  periodicals  are  maintained,  access  to  these 
may  be  granted  as  special  privileges.  Where  it  has  been 
found  out  that  they  can  be  loaned  out  for  home  use  over  night 
without  bad  effects  upon  the  getting  of  lessons  the  reward 
might  take  this  form  of  privilege  with  advantage.  In  this 
way  also,  a  secondary  end  of  education  might  be  fostered, 
namely,  that  of  creating  a  love  for  good  literature  and  of 
affording  a  fit  introduction  to  our  best  authors,  for  the 
sake  of  forming  in  the  pupils  desired  traits  of  character  and 
of  giving  them  needed  instruction  and  development  along  cer- 
tain definite  lines  ordinarily  considered,  without  the  range  of 
the  activity  of  the  schoolroom.  Needless  to  say,  to  meet 
with  success  the  books  must  be  inviting  in  their  content  as 
well  as  cultural  and  instructive,  if  the  desired  end  is  to  be 
attained  and  the  spirit  of  work  kept  up  to  a  high  degree  of 
efficiency.  The  next  step  in  granting  privileges  is  perhaps 
the  bestowing  of  the  rights  of  monitorships  to  pupils  as 
a  reward  for  meritorious  conduct  and  excellence  in  work. 
In  granting  all  forms  of  privileges  discretion  and  care  are 
necessary  in  order  to  see  that  they  are  not  of  too  long  dura- 
tion to  discourage  those  not  permitted  to  share  them  nor  to 
allow  those  enjoying  them  to  become  either  careless  in  their 
duties  as  monitors  or  fall  to  a  low  standard  in  the  perform- 
ance either  of  the  monitor  duties  or  the  schoolwork  by  the 
excellent  completing  of  which  the  honors  of  monitorship 
came  to  them.  The  rights  of  monitorship  should  not  run  so 
long  as  to  allow  either  the  interest  in  its  winning  to  lag, 
or  the  enjoyment  of  it  to  cease  to  be  an  object  of  desire. 
Their  aim  should  be  to  maintain  constant  and  wide  awake 
effort.  To  induce  renewed  effort  and  maintain  a  wide  awake 
desire  privileges  where  convenient  and  where  there  is  no 
other  serious  objection  should  be  reappointed  upon  the 
new  standing  either  weekly  or  monthly.  Only  under  rare 
circumstances  will  it  be  found  advisable  to  let  privileges  run 
for  a  longer  time,  if  the  end  to  be  obtained  thereby,  is  the 
arousing  and  maintaining  of  interest  and  increased  activity 
on  the  part  of  the  pupils  in  the  work  of  the  school. 

Due  perhaps  to  the  long  sway  of  the  law  of  the  survival 
of  the  fittest  operative  under  the  principle  of  selection,  the 


Incentives  and  Stimulants  in  Education  207 

intellect  of  man  is  particularly  responsive  to  all  forms  of 
contest  and  competition.  There  are  among  men,  by  a  na- 
ture inherited  from  the  racial  ancestry,  temperaments  which 
will  exhaust  themselves  merely  to  appear  to  advantage  among 
their  fellows  or  seek  places  of  so-called  honor.  Personal 
pride  and  love  of  approbation  of  their  fellows  are  particularly 
strong  stimulants  to  action  for  other  natures.  In  grant- 
ing privileges  care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that  weaker 
natured  pupils,  who  are  by  temperament  predisposed  to- 
wards contests  and  competition  do  not  overdo  themselves 
and  wreck  or  ruin  their  lives  by  underdoing  too  great  a 
strain.  Serious  shocks  to  educational  progress  and  con- 
siderable adverse  criticism  of  its  methods  are  often  brought 
about  in  the  school  by  inaugurating  a  system  of  calling 
forth  effort  that  is  damaging  to  health  and  bodily  or  mental 
welfare.  Education  of  no  sort  much  less  that  comparatively 
small  amount  furnished  by  the  school  can  for  a  moment  be 
weighed  against  health.  Consequently  anything  in  its 
methods  or  practices  which  is  clearly  damaging  to  health 
is  to  be  condemned.  The  moment  contests  or  competitions 
whether  they  carry  with  them  bestowing  of  rewards  or  not, 
are  announced,  most  such  natures  are  at  once  on  the  qui  vive. 
In  the  suspense  and  strain  of  the  contest  itself  these  natures 
are  keyed  up  to  a  high  degree  of  tension.  With  some  the 
tension  becomes  so  great  as  to  upset  the  physical  functions 
producing  thereby  organic  nervousness  with  all  of  its  evils 
of  dyspepsia,  constipation  and  other  related  disorders  or 
even  a  nervous  breakdown.  When  such  conditions  result 
the  practice  is  undoubtedly  bad  and  wisdom  as  well  as  best 
good,  advises  that  it  be  discontinued. 

Immunities.  Another  practice  common  in  school  life  to 
promote  progress  and  induce  work  is  the  granting  of  im- 
munities. In  some  forms  this  practice  is  quite  common  and 
seems  to  have  almost  universal  sanction  by  the  leading  au- 
thorities on  pedagogics.  In  the  granting  of  immunities  the 
danger  lies  in  the  tendency  to  grant  exemption  from  routine 
processes  which  often  become  tiresome  and  resultingly  dis- 
tasteful. Much  of  the  work  of  the  school  and  of  life  con- 
sists of  routine  and  the  education  of  the  child  in  it  and 


208  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

the  cultivation  in  him  of  a  taste  for  it  or  at  least  the  re- 
moval from  him  of  all  antipathy  toward  it  is  one  of  the  chief 
duties  of  the  schools.  To  extend,  therefore,  the  granting 
of  immunities  to  this  phase  of  schoolwork  would  be,  then, 
ostensibly  detrimental  to  the  main  end  of  school  training. 
Exemption  from  performing  tasks  that  have  no  more  than 
disciplinary  value  and  which  in  no  way  materially  affect  the 
best  good  of  the  child  or  tend  in  any  way  to  thwart  the  basic 
ends  in  education  may  and  do  receive  common  sanction. 
Tests  and  examinations  are  secondary  means  in  education 
and  from  many  sources  are  seriously  questioned  as  to  their 
practical  value  in  educational  processes.  It  is  argued  that 
they  form  no  competent  basis  of  judgment  as  to  the  work 
or  ability  of  students,  while  they  entail  upon  teacher  and 
pupil  much  labor  and  loss  of  energy  and  time.  The  prac- 
tice of  granting  immunities  from  these  is  quite  common. 
As  they  are  supposed  only  to  brighten  up  the  pupils'  memory, 
show  the  teacher  wherein  his  teaching  has  been  ineffective 
and  with  what  pupils,  and  therefrom  to  justify  his  marking 
of  a  pupil  in  a  particular  manner,  they  may  safely  be  con- 
sidered as  of  secondary  value  in  education.  If  tests  and 
examinations  are  regarded  as  such  it  will  be  taken  as  proper 
to  exempt  pupils  from  them  as  a  reward  from  work,  especially 
since  they  are  so  laborious  and  are  too  often  the  source  of 
serious  worry  on  the  part  of  many  pupils.  These  state- 
ments, however,  are  not  to  be  taken  as  an  argument  for 
omitting  tests  and  examinations  altogether  from  schoolroom 
work  as  a  useless  method  whose  results  are  either  unnecessary 
or  undesirable  for  the  school  processes.  Nor  are  they  to 
be  conceived  as  in  any  way  an  argument  against  them.  For 
while  tests  and  examinations  may  have  their  bad  sides  and 
may  have  several  evils  that  follow  in  their  wake  they  un- 
doubtedly are  a  great  aid  to  the  teacher  in  rendering  judg- 
ments against  the  pupils  and  in  estimating  the  progress  they 
have  made.  But  above  all  things  they  serve  as  a  threatening 
spectre,  a  ghost  that  will  not  down,  which  when  the  category 
of  stimulants  is  nearly  exhausted  still  serves  to  quicken  the 
mind  to  action  and  urge  the  lagging  bodies  on  to  the  desired 
goal.     The  only  thing  is  that  too  much  store  must  not  be 


Incentives  and  Stimulants  in  Education  £09 

laid  upon  their  mute  evidence  nor  must  their  frequence  be 
allowed  to  exhaust  or  worry  down  the  energy  of  the  pupils. 
In  the  case  of  reviews,  the  author  hardly  believes  that  any  ex- 
perienced teacher,  one  who  knows  the  practical  knowledge 
gaining  value  of  them  and  their  power  for  giving  under- 
standing and  strength  to  thought,  would  advise  their  being 
used  for  immunities.  The  review  is  such  a  necessary  part 
of  the  recitation  to  all  pupils  and  at  all  times  can  offer 
something  new  to  the  pupil  if  the  teacher  is  wide  awake  and 
full  of  his  subject  that  no  end  otherwise  desired  can  safely 
be  offered  as  a  justification  for  exemption  from  them.  It  is 
during  the  review  that  real  correlated  knowledge  is  gotten 
by  the  pupil,  when  a  connected  chain  is  forged  out  of  the 
whole  subject  matter  and  the  new  link  or  links  given  their 
positions  in  the  chain  according  to  their  relation.  To  allow 
therefore,  exemptions  in  this  case  would  be  to  run  the  very 
risk  of  leaving  the  whole  body  of  facts  in  the  mind  perhaps 
as  a  disorganized  tangled  mass  which  the  mind  could  not 
lay  hold  of  for  use,  not  knowing  them  in  their  various  rela- 
tions nor  how  to  use  them  in  such. 

The  Natural  Stimuli  The  natural  stimuli  employed  in 
the  schoolroom  to  bring  about  educational  activity  on  the  part 
of  the  child  are  mostly  abstract  and  distant  in  their  effects. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  system  of  socalled  artificial 
stimulants  were  found  necessary  in  order  to  offer  something 
to  the  child  that  was  both  concrete  and  immediate  and  as 
such  would  prove  to  be  a  force  immediate  in  inducing  ac- 
tive response.  In  the  last  analysis  man  is  essentially  and 
fundamentally  a  social  being.  All  of  his  bodily  functions 
and  tendencies  to  action  that  are  not  purely  biological  in 
nature  owe  their  origin  and  consequent  development  to  this 
fact.  Even  those  tendencies  pronounced  to  be  unsocial, 
which  it  is  the  aim  of  the  schoolroom  processes  to  either  re- 
move or  curb  and  redirect,  and  which  while  their  ultimate 
results  are  either  harmful  to  social  progress  or  even  de- 
structive of  the  existence  of  the  social  group  itself,  are  trace- 
able back  to  an  origin  that  lies  deeply  imbedded  in  the  action 
made  necessary  by  the  contact  and  struggle  incident  to 
our  existence  as  a  member  of  a  social  group.     Selfishness,  the 


210  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

most  unsocial  of  all  human  emotions,  for  example,  was  evi- 
dently called  into  existence  by  the  struggle  for  existence 
between  the  ego  and  alter  of  society.  If  there  were  not  in 
society  that  which  by  demanding  the  substances  of  life  for 
itself  endangered  the  existence  of  the  ego,  the  ego  could 
never  have  felt  or  developed  a  supply  of  egoistic  motions 
to  oppose  the  demands  of  these  altruistic  emotions.  In  other 
words  there  can  be  no  contradistinction  nor  antithesis  be- 
tween the  ego  and  the  alter  of  the  social  group  unless  there 
is  also  a  multiplicity  of  relations  each  with  its  own  quota  of 
needs.  This  requires  in  the  natural  order  of  things  that 
more  than  one  ego  exist,  which  is  the  paramount  fact  of 
the  world  of  endeavor  and  achievement.  So  that  while  there 
are  unsocial  tendencies  that  must  be  controlled  or  destroyed 
for  the  sake  of  society  they  owe  their  being  to  the  existence 
of  aggregate  life.  These  the  school  must  control  and  re- 
direct and  make  of  them  stimuli  for  educational  activity. 
But  while  the  unsocial  tendencies  have  their  value  as  educa- 
tional stimuli  it  is  the  social  stimuli  that  the  school  can  use 
to  greatest  effect  to  arouse  the  pupils  to  educational  activity. 
Chief  among  these  are  love  of  approbation,  love  of  commenda- 
tion, desire  for  knowledge  and  efficiency  and  desire  for  good 
standing. 

Love  of  Approbation.  One  of  the  greatest  controlling 
forces  in  society  is  the  desire  for  approval.  It  is  often  and 
justifiably  called,  because  of  its  greatness  as  a  controlling 
force  in  the  actions  of  men,  the  love  of  approbation.  This 
is  at  bottom  a  feeling  in  the  members  of  the  social  group, 
of  a  dependence  upon  their  fellows.  It  has  grown  apace  with 
the  great  division  of  mental  and  physical  labor  of  recent 
times.  Practically  all  of  the  controlling  forces  available 
to  society,  the  state  and  the  school  that  do  not  deprive  of 
life  or  liberty  owe  their  effectiveness  to  the  power  of  this 
love  of  approbation  in  man.  Even  self-esteem  is  based  upon 
a  false  or  true  judgment  of  the  value  of  self  to  society  and 
social  activity.  Whenever  in  society  the  state  or  the  school 
an  individual  is  found  to  whom  the  good  opinion  and  re- 
sultingly  the  good  will  of  his  fellows  does  not  appeal,  there 
is  but  little  left  by  means  of  which  he  may  be  controlled 


Incentives  and  Stimulants  in  Education  £11 

other  than  the  depriving  him  of  his  liberty  of  action  or  of 
his  life.  There  is  no  force  that  will  reach  him  outside  of 
physical  force  and  that  must  be  so  inflicted  as  to  keep  him 
in  constant  fear  of  it,  or  else  he  must  be  placed  where  he  has 
not  the  freedom  of  action  to  carry  out  his  unsocial  tenden- 
cies. All  of  the  common  forms  of  natural  stimuli  to  educa- 
tional activity  whether  of  practical  or  theoretical  utility 
in  the  school  will  when  traced  back  to  its  origin  be  found 
to  have  grown  out  of  this  basic  principle  of  love  of  approba- 
tion. Self  is  the  original  source  of  all  action  ;  to  self  as  a 
center  all  action  returns.  The  approbation  of  self  by  self 
and  the  approbation  of  self  by  others  while  interactive  and 
co-dependent  cover  the  whole  category  of  incentives  and 
stimuli  to  action.  Desire  for  excellence  in  general  and  in 
schoolwork  in  particular,  desire  for  praise  and  emulation, 
desire  for  knowledge  and  efficiency,  also  love  of  duty,  love 
of  right  and  love  of  honor,  all  are  but  forms  of  approbation, 
some  purely  approbation  of  others,  some  purely  approbation 
of  self,  some  still  a  mixture  of  the  two.  Self-esteem  also 
is  often  advanced  as  a  natural  stimulus  to  action,  but  this 
too  more  exactly  speaking  is  a  form  of  self  approbation. 
The  desire  for  present  and  future  good,  and  all  forms  of 
desire  for  personal  welfare  both  physical  and  mental  gain 
their  force  as  incentives  to  action  and  labor  both  in  the 
schoolroom  and  out,  as  much  from  the  principle  of  approba- 
tion as  from  the  biological  principle  of  the  struggle  for  ex- 
istence. As  a  means  to  an  end  in  educational  activity  it 
is  probably  second  to  this  principle  in  its  practical  value, 
especially  whenever  the  school  processes  are  given  a  direct 
relation  to  it. 

Good  Standing.  The  desire  for  good  standing  though 
classed  in  the  group  of  natural  incentives  to  school  work 
has  seen  such  current  application  and  been  given  such  a  form 
as  to  make  it  almost  an  artificial  means  for  the  attainment 
of  education.  It  is  one  of  the  most  common  means  now  in 
use  to  obtain  desired  results  in  school  work,  and  perhaps  one 
of  the  largest.  Too  often  both  by  children  and  parents 
grades  are  taken  as  evidence  of  excellence  and  become  desired 
in  place  of  it,  the  shadow  becomes  substituted  for  the  sub- 


218  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

stance.  The  whole  school  becomes  dominated  by  it  until 
school  processes  are  directed  to  that  end  and  all  activity 
on  the  part  of  the  pupil  has  the  attainment  of  a  certain  grade 
in  view.  When  grades  and  marks  represent  true  excellence 
and  are  real  evidence  of  advancement  and  successful  effort 
they  bring  real  satisfaction  to  all  and  the  effort  which  is 
thus  called  forth  carries  the  pupils  farther  toward  the  goal 
in  a  way  that  is  unquestionably  beneficial.  The  desire  for 
good  standing  offers  a  good  opportunity,  since  the  standard 
is  an  arbitrary  one  for  the  teachers  to  keep  a  high  ideal  be- 
fore the  pupils  and  consequently  raise  it  as  the  pupils  appear 
to  attain  it,  care  being  always  exercised  not  to  overtax  the 
youthful  energies  of  the  child.  If  students  realize  that  the 
standard  is  high,  they  will  work  hard  to  attain  it  and  take 
greater  pleasure  in  it  when  attained,  the  essential  being  first 
that  it  be  such  as  can  be  attained  by  all  and  the  second  that 
it  be  such  as  can  be  thoroughly  understood  by  them.  The 
demand  for  a  full  understanding  of  that  for  which  one  is 
striving  has  been  the  ground  for  much  real  antagonism  to 
any  system  of  marking  that  involves  the  use  of  figures, 
especially  figures  of  two  digits.  This  practice  finds  some 
grounds  of  defense  in  the  higher  grades,  but  in  the  lower 
grades  especially  the  primary  ones  where  the  children  are 
struggling  with  the  simplest  concepts  of  the  relation  of 
numbers  in  the  arithmetical  processes  the  use  of  figures  of 
two  digits  can  scarcely  find  justification.  In  the  high  schools 
and  colleges  where  if  any  place  figures  of  two  or  more  digits 
can  be  used  with  a  reasonable  amount  of  understanding  by 
all,  agitation  has  caused  reform  and  they  use  a  simple  system 
of  symbols  or  figures  of  one  place,  but  in  the  grades,  espe- 
cially the  lower  grades,  where  above  all  places  figures  should 
have  been  abandoned  because  confusing  and  as  such  inef- 
fective as  a  stimulus  for  work,  they  are  employed  with  great 
scruples.  Symbols  with  their  meaning  and  values  well  un- 
derstood may  be  used  with  satisfaction,  but  words  expressing 
quality  of  work  are  much  more  satisfactory.  Of  course 
neither  words  nor  symbols  are  satisfactory  where  competi- 
tions on  the  standard  of  mere  grades  are  in  vogue  as  they 
do    not    permit    of   the    accurate    classification    necessary. 


Incentives  and  Stimulants  in  Education  218 

School  systems  that  approve  of  or  advocate  the  use  of  such 
a  system  must  use  the  numbers  with  two  digits  and  even 
three  digits  at  times  when  competition  is  close.  Competi- 
tion has  its  bad  side  but  it  is  only  a  means  to  an  end  and 
if  it  can  be  used  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  this  end  attain- 
able and  still  preserve  other  ends  equally  desirable  there  is 
nothing  to  do  in  fairness  but  sanction  it.  It  is  a  natural  and 
universal  principle  and  cannot  be  safely  overlooked  in  school 
when  the  child  meets  it  outside  of  the  school  and  must  con- 
tinue to  meet  it  throughout  life.  In  giving  marks,  dissatis- 
faction either  on  the  part  of  parent  or  pupil  can  often  be 
remedied  by  having  the  pupils  keep  a  record  of  their  own. 
This,  however  entails  considerable  loss  of  time  in  comparison 
of  grades  between  teacher  and  pupil.  Because  of  the  impera- 
tive demand  for  time  for  the  other  routine  duties  both  for 
pupils  and  teacher  this  method  cannot  gain  extensive  use. 
A  good  substitute  for  it,  if  there  seems  for  any  reason  to  be 
general  dissatisfaction  with  the  marks,  is  to  take  a  few  mo- 
ments once  or  twice  and  mark  a  few  pupils  in  public  and 
upon  that  basis  show  the  monthly  averages  that  are  possible 
in  various  subjects  under  different  qualities  of  recitations. 
Many  pupils  as  we  all  know  are  sadly  devoid  of  any  proper 
conception  of  what  havoc  a  failure  here  and  there  during  a 
month's  recitation  will  create  in  that  month's  averages. 
Daily  marking  for  whatever  purpose  is  an  exhaustive  burden 
on  the  teacher  especially  if  the  class  or  classes  are  large. 
It  is  a  source  of  wasted  energy  that  often  tells  seriously  on 
the  quality  of  teaching.  Too,  its  demand  in  order  to  prop- 
erly judge  results  is  questionable.  What  the  school  aims 
at  is  regular,  constant  and  faithful  effort,  not  a  spasmodic 
one  called  forth  when  some  appreciable  object  is  offered  for 
a  prize.  By  such  methods  of  reward  we  reward  only  the 
superficial  in  effort  and  do  even  that  in  a  purely  mechanical 
way,  while  that  which  is  fundamental  in  education  and  in 
life,  persistent  effort,  is  generally  left  unrewarded  and  often- 
times unnoticed. 

Commendation.  Another  form  in  which  the  desire  of  ap- 
probation shows  itself  is  the  desire  for  commendation.  Com- 
mendation is  the  outward  sign  of  appreciation  of  either  well 


2  J.  4  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

directed  effort  or  successful  achievement  and  is  taken  by 
those  who  receive  it  as  an  evidence  of  merit.  Though 
commendation  is  a  strong  stimulant  to  gain  renewed  effort 
it  is  also  capable  of  producing  much  harm  unless  carefully 
used.  To  begin  with  commendation  should  never  be  given 
except  for  work  done  by  the  use  of  will  power  and  the  ex- 
penditure of  time  and  effort  or  even  with  some  personal  sac- 
rifice. To  be  effective  as  a  stimulant  commendation  must 
not  be  dispensed  too  freely  nor  for  work  that  has  not  decided 
merit  in  it.  The  value  of  it  depends  too  upon  the  general 
respect  and  esteem  in  which  the  teacher  is  held  by  the  pupils. 
Here  is  a  case,  too,  where  the  teacher's  standard  soon  tells. 
If  he  bestows  commendation  for  a  poor  grade  of  work  or 
work  imperfectly  done,  the  pupil  soon  adopts  that  as  his 
standard  and  often  forms  as  a  result  habits  of  carelessness 
and  neglect  that  follow  him  through  life.  As  was  said  about 
marks  and  grades,  here  too  persistence  at  work  even  though 
not  always  successful  should  not  be  overlooked.  Commenda- 
tions are  particularly  prone  to  arouse  vanity.  It  forms 
an  appetite  that  is  whetted  by  satisfaction.  In  addition 
to  this,  commendation  is  especially  effective  with  little  chil- 
dren. Their  whole  soul  can  be  aroused  to  activity  by  it. 
Since,  however,  the  aim  in  school  is  to  bring  about  work 
without  stimulation,  commendation  should  be  applied  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  become  more  rare  as  the  pupils  advance  in 
years,  and  the  attempt  made  to  secure  results  without  an 
appeal  to  it.  Private  commendation  where  successful  is  to 
be  more  preferred  than  public  commendation.  In  the  former 
case  it  is  valued  for  itself  and  obtains  its  strength  chiefly 
through  the  influence  the  teacher  exercises  upon  the  child. 
In  the  latter  the  effort  solicits  the  play  of  a  desire  for 
advantage  over  other  pupils  or  perhaps  again  serves  to 
satisfy  some  spirit  of  revenge  that  conditions  in  and  about 
the  school  may  have  engendered.  When  it  arouses  these 
feelings  it  has  passed  its  stage  of  usefulness  and  the  best 
good  of  the  school  demands  that  it  be  immediately  discon- 
tinued. Too  often  commendation  descends  to  the  level  of 
mere  flattery  unstintingly  bestowed.  When  this  happens 
it  is  full  time  to  call  a  halt.     Nothing  is  so  demoralizing 


Incentives  and  Stimulants  in  Education  £15 

upon  the  work  of  a  school  as  cheap  flattery  in  the  hands 
of  an  indiscreet  and  gullible  teacher.  When  commendation 
takes  the  form  of  emulation  which  it  may  well  do  with  older 
pupils  it  becomes  more  powerful  if  properly  handled.  The 
elements  of  self-esteem  and  desire  for  excellence  give  to  it 
this  increase  of  power  as  an  incentive  to  action.  Its  virtue 
lies  in  the  fact  that  coupled  with  the  other  elements  there  is 
generally  present  a  definite  ideal  toward  which  the  pupil  is 
working.  It  carries  with  it  generous  and  honorable  am- 
bition. When  these  forces  can  be  brought  to  bear  upon  a 
pupil  to  produce  effort  and  successful  achievement  he  is 
well  on  the  road  to  a  life  of  usefulness  and  is  under  the  con- 
trol of  forces  that  are  generally  guaranteed  to  take  him 
safely  through.  The  use  of  emulation  has  its  dangers  too, 
chief  of  which  is  the  begetting  of  wrong  standards  and  selfish 
ambitions,  but  in  the  hands  of  a  high  minded,  exemplary 
teacher  it  may  arouse  a  spirit  for  study  and  create  ideals 
in  it  that  have  given  to  the  world  some  of  its  greatest  men 
of  science,  art  and  literature. 

Desire  for  Knowledge  and  Efficiency.  The  intellect  we 
learn  from  psychology  is  one  of  the  "  organs  "  of  the  mind, 
(a  phase  of  manifestation  of  mind).  Its  functioning  pro- 
duces knowledge.  Like  every  other  organ  it  is  endowed  with 
an  innate  desire  for  activity.  This  yearning  for  activity 
becomes  in  the  mental  life  a  craving  for  knowledge  which  it 
is  claimed  is  a  spontaneous  and  natural  principle  of  the  mind 
fundamental  in  all  intelligent  beings.  Like  all  other  func- 
tions both  physical  and  mental,  the  functioning  of  the  in- 
tellect is  especially  active  in  the  early  periods  of  life.  Like 
all  other  functions  when  they  are  given  full  opportunity  for 
exercise,  the  organism  receives  pleasure.  Mental  pleasures 
are  distinguished  from  physical  pleasures  in  being  perhaps 
less  intense,  but  more  enduring.  The  satisfaction  of  the 
desire  for  knowledge  is  a  continuous  process  that  may  con- 
tinue during  the  normal  period  of  life  of  a  healthy  body 
and  mind.  It  is  true  that  the  desire  for  knowledge  and 
truth  is  one  of  the  most  noble  as  well  as  most  enduring 
and  useful  desires  that  arises  in  the  soul  of  man  and  one  that 
actuates  the  men  of  science  to  wear  themselves  away  in  the 


216  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

search  for  new  truth.  It  is  also  true  that  knowledge  alone 
without  its  root  in  the  more  fundamental  desire  for  approba- 
tion and  the  kindred  feelings  of  esteem  and  personal  welfare 
which  they  bring,  would  be  a  minor  stimulant  to  intellectual 
effort.  Knowledge  in  itself  did  it  not  bring  with  it  access 
to  the  material  goods  of  the  world,  high  position,  conscious- 
ness of  excellence  among  our  fellows  and  secret  power  above 
others,  would  become  an  object  of  little  or  no  desire.  Even 
the  mere  joy  of  knowing  as  an  abstract  quality  is  an  in- 
significant stimulant  to  action  unless  it  is  known  to  bring 
to  the  possessor  certain  advantages  not  possessed  by  other 
men.  The  cravings  of  the  mind  are  strong  and  are  a  suffi- 
cient reason  for  calling  forth  intense  intellectual  activity  and 
lead  often  to  self-sacrificing  efforts  in  study  and  especially  in 
research,  that  the  uninitiated  novice  can  never  appreciate. 
But  let  it  be  abstracted  from  all  other  relations  in  life  and 
be  left  to  stand  for  its  own  sake  and  the  previously  unquench- 
able fire  soon  sinks  to  dying  embers  and  is  extinquished  for 
the  very  want  of  sufficient  fuel  to  maintain  zeal.  When  it 
comes  down  to  a  fundamental  fact  nothing  in  life  and  its 
relation  exists  in  and  for  itself,  neither  as  force  nor  as  mat- 
ter. Nothing  has  any  value  for  its  own  unrelated  sake,  not 
even  knowledge.  In  other  words  take  away  knowledge  from 
its  relation  to  human  activities,  its  effectiveness  and  power 
in  human  affairs  and  make  it  of  no  earthly  value  except  for 
knowledge  and  it  can  be  of  no  use  or  value  to  man.  "  If 
salt  has  lost  its  savor  wherewith  shall  it  be  salty?  "  If 
knowledge  is  of  no  value  except  for  knowledge,  of  what  use 
or  value  shall  it  be  except  for  knowledge?  No  man  could  be 
induced  to  waste  his  time  in  the  pursuit  of  something  that 
is  of  no  earthy  value  unless  he  were  an  abject  fool.  If  he 
were  proved  not  to  be  a  fool  then  at  once  you  would  refuse 
to  believe  that  he  was  doing  something  that  was  of  no  value 
to  him  or  his  fellows.  This,  of  course,  is  contrary  to  popu- 
lar opinion,  but  is  basic  notwithstanding.  If  the  possession 
of  knowledge  served  no  end  in  individual  life  other  than  to 
satisfy  a  demand  for  functional  activity  it  would  fluctuate 
with  the  rise  and  fall  of  bodily  energy  and  would  in  its  turn 
depend  for  its  power  upon  lack  of  satiation.     But  this  is 


Incentives  and  Stimulants  in  Education  217 

not  the  case  in  practice,  there,  the  desire  generally  so  over- 
runs the  supply  of  the  bodily  energies  that  oftentimes  ex- 
haustion, sickness  and  breakdowns  resulting  in  death  occur. 
It  is  because  of  its  universal  relation  and  theoretical  control 
of  these  relations  that  makes  it  truly  the  most  desirable  thing 
in  the  world  and  consequently  causes  the  sacrifice  of  all  else 
in  the  world  to  attain  it,  even  health  and  sometimes  life. 
Seen  in  this  relation  by  only  a  few  it  becomes  the  where- 
withal in  life  to  the  few.  Whatever  be  the  qualities  of  mind 
different  from  those  of  matter,  mind  cannot  get  too  much 
food  (knowledge)  in  its  mental  relations  unless  perhaps  in 
those  cases  of  morbid  activity  that  are  not  normal  but  dis- 
eased states. 

Because  the  desire  for  knowledge  is  natural  and  its  satis- 
faction keen,  the  use  of  it  as  an  incentive  to  the  pursuit  of 
knowledge  must  of  necessity  be  of  practical  value.  To  tins 
end  the  teacher  should  bend  his  every  effort.  Daily  evidence 
of  the  practical  value  of  knowledge  may  furnish  a  beginning. 
When  this  has  become  effective  theoretical  values  of  knowl- 
edge may  be  taken  up.  The  gaining  of  knowledge,  however, 
is  not  a  pleasure,  in  fact  it  is  impossible  unless  there  is  ac- 
tivity, sometimes  intense  activity,  enforced  to  the  point  of 
bodily  suffering.  As  an  organ  in  the  knowledge  getting 
process  the  intellect  must  function.  No  doubt  neither 
knowledge,  nor  any  amount  of  activity  of  the  faculty  of 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  is  knowing  for  the 
child.  His  own  intellect  must  act  for  itself  and  knowledge 
is  the  result.  To  impart  knowledge  a  teacher  must  arouse 
the  intellect  of  the  pupil  to  action.  Anything  other  than 
this  is  a  misnomer.  We  must  work  upon  the  desire  for 
activity,  arousing  it  to  action  either  normally  or  abnormally, 
naturally  or  unnaturally  and  then  keep  it  aroused  and  active 
by  means  of  various  stimulants  until  it  functions  appropri- 
ately for  itself,  when  the  only  demand  then  is  that  the  activity 
be  directed  along  the  proper  channels  and  the  material  for 
the  activity  be  supplied  in  such  a  manner  and  amid  such 
conditions  as  to  make  the  activity  pleasurable.  Everything 
else  will  be  assured,  natural  mental  activity  can  be  entrusted 
to  nature. 


218  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  intellect  begins  to  function  at  the 
beginning  of  life.  The  desire  is  there  naturally  and  since 
the  whole  environment  furnishes  material  the  intellectual 
activity  is  well  on  its  way  when  the  school  age  is  reached. 
The  trouble  begins  here  because  the  school  processes  so  in- 
terfere with  the  natural  processes  as  often  to  clog  or  cram 
the  intellectual  machinery  in  such  a  way  as  to  materially 
hinder  its  action  or  even  stop  its  normal  processes.  Then 
it  has  the  burden  of  reawakening  activity  by  artificial  proc- 
esses which  have  all  of  the  weaknesses  and  foibles  of  artifice 
against  nature  and  the  activity  drags  on  amid  theory  and 
practice  until  the  child  either  is  finally  gotten  back  into  the 
right  track  or  is  ground  out  by  the  process  an  unfinished 
product  to  shift  for  himself  in  the  more  extensive  world 
processes.  In  the  complex  life  of  to-day  which  is  far  from 
what  we  call  nature,  many  unnatural  things  are  necessary. 
This  is  true  of  school  processes.  Much  of  school  routine 
is,  and  of  necessity  must  be  contrary  to  nature.  In  school 
nature  and  artifice  (art)  must  mix.  The  danger  lies  in 
attempting  with  the  young  child  in  the  lower  grades  to  make 
the  transition  from  nature  too  suddenly,  so  suddenly  that  we 
interrupt  and  destroy  the  methods  of  nature  before  the 
methods  of  art  have  gotten  a  working  hold  upon  the  child  in- 
tellect. If  this  danger  could  be  overcome  all  would  be  smooth 
sailing.  At  least,  however,  the  teacher  can  advise  himself 
well  of  the  methods  of  nature  and  begin  there  and  make 
gradual  transition  to  the  methods  of  art.  This  would  make 
a  revolution  in  many  cases  in  methods  and  in  still  more 
cases,  in  results.  Teaching  to-day  is  too  often  false  and 
artificial.  As  a  result  its  efforts  too  often  end  in  cor- 
responding failure.  Activity  is  a  normal  condition  of  life, 
when  this  is  made  possible  by  nature  or  by  means  as  nearly 
like  those  of  nature  as  is  possible,  or  by  methods  of  transi- 
tion sufficiently  gradual  to  enable  a  gradual  transformation 
of  nature.  When  this  change  in  methods  comes  so  suddenly 
as  to  check  nature,  the  processes  cease  to  bring  natural 
pleasure  strengthened  by  a  consciousness  of  normal  devel- 
opment added  to  a  feeling  of  skill  and  power.  These  latter 
may  then  be  made  the  source  of  secondary  or  derived  pleas- 


Incentives  and  Stimulants  in  Education  219 

ures  in  activity  whereby  the  ends  of  education  may  be  the 
more  readily  and  easily  served. 

Love  of  Honor  and  Right.     Love  of  honor  and  right  are 
again  both  high  forms  of  the  basic  principle  of  love  of  appro- 
bation.    In  fact  they  are  stronger  forms  of  it  than  those 
forms  of  it  mentioned  above.     Of  course,  right  doing  has  its 
own  reward  in  the  moral  and  intellectual  world  apart  from 
the  superficial  reward  which  men  accord  it.     The  very  fact 
of  its  being  right  in  the  generic  sense  of  the  word  makes 
this  a  logical  necessity.     It  is  only  because  right  doing  has 
its   own   reward   that  it   is   designated  right.     Apart   from 
this,  right  doing  is  rewarded  by  the  fact  that  it  is  taken  as 
an  evidence  of  certain  qualities  of  excellence,  power,  esteem 
and  a  successful  pursuit  of  certain  ideals  common  to  civil- 
ized man,  but  which  are  attained  in  various  degrees  by  dif- 
ferent individuals,  that  make  it  a  source  of  approbation  pri- 
marily in  others  and  secondarily  in  self.     If  a  child  can  be 
brought  face  to  face  with  the  fruits  of  right  conduct  that 
accrue  in  the  very  nature  of  things,  that  would  be  the  high- 
est standard  attainable.     It  is  satisfactory,  however,  if  he 
even  be  made  to  appreciate  the  values  of  right  doing  for  the 
good  of  his  fellows.     As  the  appeal  to  the  desire  for  appro- 
bation is  one  that  is  easily  made  and  readily  effective,  its 
pedagogical  value  in  the  schoolroom  is  inestimable.     Care 
must  be  taken  always  in  this  appeal,  however,  to  see  that 
the    proper   conception    of    right    is    present.      Children    in 
the  home,   on   the   street    and  in   the   school   get  sometimes 
not  only  crude  and  misleading  conceptions  of  right,  but  even 
harmful  conceptions  of  it.     There  are  still  others  who  have 
little  or  no  conception  of  it  at  all.     While  the  teacher  must 
see   daily   evidences   of  the  standards   of   right   and  wrong 
manifested  by  his  pupils,  in  order  to  assure  himself  that  all 
is   as  it   should  be,  he  should  interest  himself  to   find   out 
wherein  the  standards   are  different   from  his   and  wherein 
wrong  or  low,  and  take  pains  to  correct  and  elevate  them. 
It  is  surprising  to  find  out  sometimes  what  low  standards  some 
pupils  have,  as  well  as,  what  high  standards  other  pupils 
have.     Especially  are  these  facts  more  likely  to  come  to  the 
front   in   games    and   competitive   contests    than   elsewhere, 


220  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

when  the  conflicting  interests  of  self  and  others  meet.  These 
are  sometimes  more  prominent  in  the  games  of  boys  than 
those  of  girls.  The  fact  is  the  school  child's  code  of  morals 
is  more  often  one  of  expediency  and  convenience  than  one 
of  right,  with  self  as  the  center  from  which  all  judgments 
emanate.  The  chief  lessons  necessary  for  pupils  in  right 
doing  are  to  respect  the  rights  of  others.  Because  perhaps 
of  the  biological  relations  between  egoism  and  life  in  the 
young,  the  interests  of  self  seem  to  predominate  and  the 
young  require  careful  instructions  in  their  relations  to  others 
and  their  own  rights  in  the  premises.  The  duty  of  the 
school  here  is  clear. 

Closely  interwoven  with  the  question  of  the  love  of  right 
is  that  one  of  the  love  of  honor.  The  real  value  of  this  feeling 
as  an  instrument  of  control  in  the  schoolroom  and  an  in- 
centive to  perform  the  duties  in  the  various  forms  of  school 
routine  and  school  exercises  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 
How  universal  and  powerful  the  desire  for  honor  is  but 
little  appreciated.  Even  in  the  most  depraved,  some  sort 
of  an  idea  and  code  of  honor  is  present.  The  band  of  rob- 
bers and  the  den  of  thieves  each  has  its  individual  code  of 
honor.  The  code  may  not  be  one  to  which  we  would  sub- 
scribe, but  it  suits  their  standard  and  all  of  the  group  gener- 
ally own  fealty  to  it.  The  first  thing,  then,  for  the  school 
teacher  to  do  is  to  see  to  it  that  the  standard  of  honor  among 
his  pupils  is  proper  and  of  reasonable  elevation  morally,  not 
over  the  heads  of  the  pupils,  in  which  case  it  will  have  little 
practical  value  for  them,  but  as  high  as  possible  for  the  great- 
est appreciation  and  best  good  of  the  pupils.  If  this  is  be- 
low his  standard  once  he  gets  the  pupils  consent  to  it  he 
can  easily  take  steps  to  elevate  it.  Most  pupils  have  a  keen 
sense  of  honor.  So  keen  is  it  that  when  it  has  been  developed 
in  the  wrong  direction  it  is  often  difficult  for  the  teacher  to 
control  the  situation.  Many  a  teacher  has  experienced  dif- 
ficulty at  some  time  in  his  work  in  getting  pupils  to  "  tell  " 
on  one  another.  But  although  "  tattling "  is  always  ob- 
noxious to  the  true  teacher  and  therefore  to  be  discouraged 
there  are  times  when  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  truth  in 
a  given  case.     At  this  time  no  false  sense  of  honor  should  be 


Incentives  and  Stimulants  in  Education  221 

allowed  to  obstruct  the  course  of  justice  in  schoolroom  dis- 
cipline and  punishment.  The  difference  between  tattling  and 
giving  desired  information  when  asked  for  it  directly  if  not 
fully  appreciated  can  easily  and  readily  be  made  clear.  A 
high  sense  of  honor  with  power  to  distinguish  it  in  its  desirable 
and  undesirable  form  should  always  be  encouraged  and  where 
absent  every  attempt  should  be  made  to  arouse  it.  Let  every 
pupil  know  what  you  think  of  his  honor  and  what  you  think  it 
ought  to  be.  In  whatever  respect  it  is  wanting  it  will  prob- 
ably be  not  found  so  long.  The  history  of  pedagogy  teems 
with  cases  illustrating  the  efficacy  of  putting  faith  in  pupils 
and  of  letting  them  know  that  you  trust  them.  The  general 
experience  is  that  they  respond  generously.  The  love  of 
honor  always  proves  especially  valuable  in  maintaining  dis- 
cipline and  obtaining  good  government.  In  fact  personal 
honor  and  integrity  is  the  principle  on  which  the  practice  of 
self-government  in  our  various  institutions  of  secondary  edu- 
cation is  based.  It  is  of  particular  value  in  democratic  forms 
of  self-government,  where  each  citizen  is  placed  upon  his 
merit  and  where  the  institutions  of  the  state  are  dependent 
for  their  perpetuation  upon  the  honor  and  loyalty  of  each 
citizen.  Love  of  honor  ought,  therefore,  be  especially  in 
schools  of  democratic  countries.  In  the  administration  of 
the  affairs  of  the  school  the  love  of  honor  of  a  pupil  is  some- 
times put  under  considerable  strain  because  at  times  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  appeal  to  a  pupil  for  testimony  against 
himself  or  his  best  friend.  Here  the  love  of  honor  is  put  to 
a  severe  test,  but  if  it  is  fully  appreciated  and  the  pupil 
awake  to  his  relations  in  the  matter,  the  response  to  the 
appeal  of  honor  will  be  satisfactorily  forthcoming.  By 
many,  such  a  situation  is  based  upon  a  false  system  of  school 
government  and  is  accordingly  condemned.  When  such  is 
necessary  that  justice  might  prevail,  it  is  hardly  deserving 
of  a  judgment  of  condemnation.  The  real  fact  in  the  mat- 
ter is,  that  the  child  should  be  taught  not  only  not  to  shield 
himself  in  the  wrong,  but  also  not  even  to  shield  his  brother, 
sister  or  best  friend.  Let  him  know  from  the  start  that  it 
is  unmanly  and  damaging  to  character  to  do  wrong  but  it  is 
far  worse  once  the  wrong  is  done  to  attempt  to  shield  one- 


222  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

self  by  treachery  or  falsehood.  Wrong  and  punishment 
should  be  so  associated  in  his  mind  that  when  he  does  the 
one  intentionally  the  other  must  and  will  follow.  If  he  comes 
to  this  attitude  about  himself  there  will  be  but  little  trouble 
in  getting  him  to  reach  the  same  conclusion  about  his  friend. 
To  do  wrong  is  to  merit  condemnation  and  punishment,  but 
to  commit  one  wrong  and  then  attempt  to  cover  this  by 
another  wrong  is  deserving  of  double  condemnation  and  pun- 
ishment. Besides  the  deception  in  covering  up  the  wrong  is 
more  damaging  to  character  than  the  committing  of  the 
act  itself.  These  aids  to  love  of  honor  might  become  very 
powerful.  If,  too,  the  teacher  would  carefully  discriminate 
in  punishments  based  on  the  willful  intention  of  the  pupil  to 
commit  wrong  he  will  find  out  that  an  appeal  to  his  honor 
for  the  truth  will  be  much  more  readily  effective. 

These  are  a  few  of  the  incentives  and  stimulants  in  practice 
in  the  school  to  excite  educational  activity  in  the  pupils,  with 
relation  to  the  fundamental  spring  of  human  action  morally 
considered,  namely,  the  love  of  approbation,  also  these  taken 
in  their  relation  to  the  method  of  applying  them,  and  their 
effectiveness  when  applied  in  producing  the  desired  ends  in 
education. 

REFERENCE  READING 

King's  "Education  for  Social  Efficiency."     Chap.  VIII. 
White's  "  School  Management."     P.  130. 


CHAPTER    X 

ROUTINE  AND  ACCESSORY  DUTIES  OF  THE 
TEACHER 

There  are  certain  routine  and  accessory  duties  which  all 
teachers  find  it  necessary  to  do  in  order  to  have  their  work 
attain  any  degree  of  perfection  and  efficiency.  Both  ex- 
perience and  observation  have  gone  to  show  that  while  these 
duties  must  never  be  allowed  to  descend  to  the  level  of  mere 
mechanism,  they  must  be  performed  constantly  and  seriously 
by  every  teacher  if  the  work  of  the  school  is  to  be  of  lasting 
benefit  both  in  a  general  and  in  a  special  sense.  Of  these 
the  routine  duties  are  more  or  less  elaborately  worked  out 
and  in  general  are  practiced  everywhere,  the  accessory  duties 
cover  a  more  recent  field  of  activity  for  the  teacher.  Their 
limitations  are  not  yet  clearly  defined  but  during  their  still 
early  period  of  growth  they  have  already  shown  that  within 
their  confines  there  are  numberless  ways  that  they  may  both 
augment  and  intensify  the  influence  and  work  of  the  school. 
The  best  evidence  that  we  can  produce  of  the  effectiveness  and 
helpfulness  of  these  accessory  duties  to  the  school,  is  the  fact 
that  everywhere  their  need  is  being  preached  and  the  whole- 
some good  they  are  doing  being  advertised,  all  resulting  in 
the  rapid  and  almost  phenomenal  spread  and  organization  of 
these  forces  for  educational  purposes.  These  accessory 
duties  of  the  school  teacher  lie  in  the  field  of  activity  and 
cooperation  with  such  movements  as  civic  clubs,  mothers 
clubs,  neighborhood  and  community  assemblies  and  agitating 
other  movements  and  assemblages  which  look  to  human  up- 
lift and  give  aid  to  the  constructive  forces  of  education  as 
controlled  and  directed  by  the  school. 

I.        ROUTINE    DUTIES 

Opening  Exercises.  Not  all,  nor  even  the  greater  part  of 
the  routine  duties  of  the  school  can  be  mentioned  here  to 

223 


%%4>  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

say  nothing  of  discussing  them.  Indeed  only  a  few  of  the 
more  important  can  receive  our  attention  and  only  enough 
will  be  said  of  these  to  show  what  the  general  nature  of  these 
routine  duties  is  and  how  their  faithful  performance  affects 
the  general  welfare  of  the  school  and  the  working  efficiency 
of  the  pupil.  The  first  of  these  which  will  be  dealt  with, 
is  the  matter  of  holding  opening  exercises.  To  begin  with 
opening  exercises  have  been  worked  into  the  work  of  the  day 
as  a  moment  for  "  getting  one's  self  together  for  the  school- 
day."  Because  of  this  there  is  never  much  time  to  be  de- 
voted to  them.  However,  it  has  been  made  clearly  evident 
that  these  opening  exercises  may  be  made  the  occasion  for 
much  opportune  and  helpful  instruction  in  work  not  other- 
wise provided  for  in  the  school  course  and  thereby  become 
an  elevating  influence  both  on  teacher  and  pupil.  Besides 
these,  the  opening  exercises  furnish  a  splendid  opportunity 
for  religious  instruction.  Religious  instruction  as  such  is 
sadly  absent  from  many  of  the  homes  from  which  the  school 
draws  the  majority  of  its  pupils.  In  some  homes  there  is 
outright  indifference  and  even  open  opposition  to  the  re- 
ligious sentiments.  In  others  it  is  merely  neglected  in  the 
rush  to  meet  other  demands  of  life.  But  whatever  may  be 
the  theoretical  objections  to  religion  on  the  part  of  any 
one,  none  can  seriously  or  effectively  deny  that  practically 
religion  is  a  potent  factor  in  controlling  the  actions  and 
affairs  of  men.  Chiefly  because  of  the  ignorance  of  the  child, 
the  crudeness  of  his  knowledge  and  beliefs  and  the  fact  that 
he  is  psychically,  mentally  and  morally  in  that  historical 
stage  of  the  race  when  religious  beliefs  held  full  sway  and 
dominion  over  man,  the  child  is  particularly  susceptible  to 
the  controlling  influence  of  religious  truths  and  religious 
sentiment.  In  the  early  formative  period,  when  the  im- 
pressibility of  the  mind  is  great,  it  is  highly  essential  that 
the  foundation  of  religious  zeal  and  devotion  be  implanted 
in  the  child  whereupon  may  be  built  a  strong  mental  and 
moral  superstructure.  Of  course  this  country  is  a  republic 
and  because  of  its  conception  of  human  rights  tolerates 
every  form  of  religious  sect  and  creed  that  there  is,  so  long 
as  its  operation  does  not  interfere  with  the  proper  adminis- 


Routine  and  Accessory  Duties  of  the  Teacher      £25 

tration  of  our  civil  and  political  institutions.  This  makes 
instruction  in  religion  so  far  as  the  teaching  of  any  creeds 
or  dogmas  is  concerned  impossible  in  the  state  system  of 
schools  which  are  maintained  by  the  taxes  levied  upon  and 
collected  from  all  of  the  people  alike  irrespective  of  religious 
views  and  adherence  to  sects  with  their  various  creeds  and 
dogmas.  But  it  does  not  and  should  not  prevent  the  con- 
ducting of  devotional  exercises  in  all  of  our  public  schools 
where  proper  love  for  God,  respect  for  his  laws  and  faith  in 
the  teachings  of  Jesus  can  be  carefully  instilled  into  the 
minds  of  the  children  of  the  country.  This  is  perhaps  the 
primary  reason  for  holding  general  exercises  during  the  day 
for  the  children.  In  some  sections  of  the  country  the  general 
sentiment  of  the  community  is  against  the  holding  of  devo- 
tional exercises  in  the  school.  So  strong  is  this  adverse 
sentiment  in  some  sections  that  it  has  resulted  in  the  enact- 
ment of  laws  against  it.  However,  even  with  this  done  it 
can  hardly  be  claimed  as  sufficient  grounds  for  not  having 
some  form  of  general  exercises  at  the  time  when  the  entire 
body  of  students  and  teachers  can  be  together,  even  if  local 
conditions  and  problems  should  demand  the  holding  of  these 
exercises  at  another  hour  of  the  day  than  at  the  opening 
hour,  that  is  more  convenient  for  all.  If  the  holding  of  open- 
ing exercises  were  justified  only  on  religious  grounds,  in 
these  sections  where  sentiment  or  statutory  enactment  pre- 
vailed to  prevent  these,  there  would  be  little  further  need  of 
opening  exercises.  But  opening  exercises  or  when  this  is 
impracticable  or  impossible  later  hours  of  general  assemblage 
have  other  functions  to  serve  almost  equally  important. 
There  is  much  other  good  such  general  gatherings  of  teachers 
and  pupils  may  do.  In  the  first  place  there  is  the  general 
socializing  tone  and  influence  of  good  fellowship  which  it 
exerts  over  all.  If  at  that  time  deference  and  regard  in 
seating  is  had  for  the  respective  grades  of  pupils,  such  gather- 
ings may  serve  to  quicken  ambition  and  stimulate  to  whole- 
some activity  all  of  the  egoistic  emotions  and  many  of  the 
altruistic  emotions  which  react  most  directly  upon  the  more 
general  feeling  of  love  of  approbation.  Again  these  gather- 
ings may  be  made  the  occasion  for  various  forms  of  special 


226  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

instruction  not  otherwise  provided  for  in  the  course.  In 
the  higher  grades  where  separation  permits  this  may  be  ex- 
tended to  procuring  outside  talent  for  special  instruction 
along  a  chosen  line.  Instruction  in  manners  and  morals 
may  be  profitably  given  at  that  time  as  well  as  instruction  in 
the  general  rules  and  regulations  governing  conduct  in  and 
out  of  the  building  on  and  off  the  grounds  and  the  method 
of  their  application  and  enforcement.  The  hour  of  the 
opening  exercises  may  also  be  made  the  occasion  of  determin- 
ing punctuality  and  attendance  of  pupils.  Especially  is  this 
true  where  there  is  departmental  work  and  no  other  general 
assembly  room  where  the  supervision  of  attendance  may  be 
had.  From  the  viewpoint  of  discipline  these  assemblies  for 
the  opening  exercises  have  further  justification.  They  offer 
an  opportunity  for  the  students  to  come  into  contact  with 
the  governing  power,  the  principal,  for  example  who  will  gen- 
erally preside  at  these  meetings.  They  will  also  do  good  by 
bringing  pupils  into  closer  contact  with  the  assisting  teachers 
whom  the  pupils  would  perhaps  not  otherwise  learn  to  know 
until  years  afterward,  if  at  all.  Where  these  opening  exer- 
cises are  held  in  the  separate  rooms  the  individual  teacher 
can  so  enforce  his  personal  magnetism  as  to  make  these  gath- 
erings a  time  of  close  communion  and  understanding,  and, 
so  interesting  that  they  will  become  a  time  pleasantly  an- 
ticipated by  all,  ushering  in  the  day  with  a  happy  beginning. 
Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  general  value  of  this  kind 
of  an  exercise  in  relation  to  the  other  work  of  the  school  can 
hardly  justify  the  use  of  more  than  from  five  to  fifteen  min- 
utes of  the  school  day  for  it.  Nor  would  less  than  five 
minutes  be  of  much  profit  for  such  an  exercise.  The  mean 
average  general  in  use  for  these  opening  exercises  is  ten  min- 
utes. 

Length  of  School  Hours,  The  questions  of  the  dismissal 
of  students  and  the  length  of  time  that  they  may  safely  be 
kept  in  school  to  insure  the  meeting  of  the  greatest  number 
of  ends  are  without  doubt  next  in  importance.  If  not  so, 
they  are  at  least  logically  next  in  order,  what  is  to  be  done 
with  them  while  they  are  in  school  being  treated  of  in  other 
chapters.     The  dismissal  of  students  is  a  matter  to  which 


Routine  and  Accessory  Duties  of  the  Teacher      227 

much  less  time  and  attention  is  paid  than  to  the  opening  ex- 
ercises. All  authors  on  pedagogy  unite  in  advocating  that 
the  hours  of  the  primary  pupils  be  shorter  than  those  of  the 
older  pupils.  Where  they  all  assemble  together  this  neces- 
sitates their  being  dismissed  before  the  higher  grade  pupils. 
Oftentimes  however,  if  it  is  found  necessary  to  dismiss  the 
lower  grades  before  the  higher  grades  because  the  smaller 
children  who  desire  often  to  play  with  the  older  ones  some- 
times get  hurt  or  are  "  bullied,"  receiving  rough  handling 
that  causes  complaint  from  parents  or  guardians  or  from 
outsiders,  merely  passersby.  Oftentimes,  too,  this  same 
condition  arises  with  different  grades  of  the  larger  pupils. 
Once  in  a  while  it  extends  to  different  school  buildings. 
Sometimes  a  demand  is  felt  for  a  change  in  times  of  dis- 
missal of  a  class  or  of  a  whole  school  because  of  differences 
arising  from  the  merest  trifle  between  pupils  of  different 
buildings.  Especially  is  this  the  case  when  there  are  schools 
for  separate  races,  or  in  congested  districts  where  there  are 
large  foreign  elements  in  the  population.  Such  friction  has 
been  known  to  cause  serious  trouble  even  provoking  the  call- 
ing of  the  civil  authorities.  In  such  cases  the  expedient  of 
having  one  school  open  and  dismiss  sufficiently  earlier  or  later 
than  the  other  in  order  to  give  all  of  the  students  of  the  one 
grade  or  building  time  to  scatter  or  get  home  before  the 
others  are  dismissed  is  often  tried  with  success.  Where  they 
are  all  of  one  building  but  different  grades  the  demand  for 
making  the  school  hours  of  the  little  folks  shorter  resulting 
in  their  being  dismissed  from  school  earlier  generally  solves 
the  problem.  At  least,  it  permits  those  in  authority  easily 
to  lay  the  blame  for  the  happening  upon  the  really  guilty 
one.  Other  expedients  where  the  troubles  arise  between  the 
respective  grades  or  pupils  of  other  buildings  such  as  having 
one  set  of  pupils  restricted  to  one  side  of  the  street,  especially 
if  of  another  building  or  district ;  or  the  expedient  of  having 
one  set  come  and  go  from  one  corner  and  the  other  from  the 
opposite  corner  have  also  been  known  to  give  satisfaction 
when  tried.  The  school  period  is  usually  from  nine  to  twelve 
and  from  two  until  four.  This  time  being  shortened  from 
one  half  to  an  hour  and  a  half  for  the  primary  grades,  with 


Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

recess  periods  corresponding  to  the  grade.  Some  schools 
also  have  half  day  sessions  while  others  begin  earlier  and  hold 
later  having  one  long,  continuous  session. 

The  Keeping  of  Grades  and  Marks.  The  question  of  keep- 
ing grades  and  marks  has  always  been  a  cause  of  much  dis- 
cussion among  school  teachers  and  school  authorities.  The 
question  is  not  so  much  that  grades  should  not  be  kept,  as  it 
is  how  much  keeping  of  grades  is  necessary  to  bring  about 
the  highest  degree  of  efficiency  in  schoolwork,  it  being  as- 
sumed that  by  using  grading  as  a  means  of  producing  sat- 
isfaction in  the  mind  of  the  child  and  creating  in  him  re- 
newed interest  in  and  satisfaction  with  the  work  the  quality 
of  the  work  of  the  school  is  improved.  Experience  has 
taught  that  it  is  difficult  for  the  teacher  always  to  remember 
just  what  a  given  pupil  deserves  in  a  certain  subject  during 
the  course  of  a  month,  especially  if  marks  are  given  in  num- 
bers of  two  or  more  digits.  When  the  marks  used  are  sym- 
bols of  one  digit  up  to  and  including  ten  the  case  is  less  dif- 
ficult. This  represents  a  more  general  equality  in  marking, 
one  that  is  more  satisfactory  and  that  will  give  more  justice 
to  all,  that  is  much  less  laborious  and  which  may  be  readily 
given  at  stated  periods  instead  of  during  or  immediately 
after  each  recitation.  However,  whatever  system  is  used 
they  should  at  all  times  be  well  understood  by  the  pupils. 
Where  rewards  are  given  or  the  grading  system  is  used  as 
a  means  of  stimulation  and  for  the  purpose  of  working  upon 
the  spirit  of  competition  to  more  or  less  extent  present  in  all 
pupils,  in  order  to  assure  justice  and  satisfaction  to  all,  a 
more  exact  system  of  grading  is  necessary.  This  is  perhaps 
the  basic  justification  of  the  system  of  numbers  of  two  digits 
in  keeping  grades,  and  especially  those  of  three  digits  which 
under  this  system  of  competition  sometimes  become  necessary 
in  order  to  decide  "  who  is  who  "  in  cases  of  close  competition. 
For  mere  promotion  such  an  extensive  and  laborious  system 
of  keeping  grades  can  hardly  be  justified,  especially  where 
the  system  is  rational  and  not  mechanical. 

Of  course,  where  the  pupils  are  promoted  purely  upon 
the  grades  they  make,  with  no  reference  to  their  general  or 
even  special  ability,  or  without  the  question  of  whether  or 


Routine  and  Accessory  Duties  of  the  Teacher      229 

not  they  can  do  satisfactorily  the  work  of  the  next  grade, 
these  elaborate  systems  of  grade  keeping  may  well  be  a  neces- 
sity. But  where  the  quality  of  the  work  done  by  a  pupil 
during  the  whole  year  and  his  general  efficiency  in  the  work 
together  with  his  ability  to  do  the  work  of  the  next  grade 
satisfactorily  to  himself  and  the  teacher,  are  the  prominent 
factors  in  the  question  of  promotion,  then,  of  course,  the 
keeping  of  grades  becomes  secondary  and  is  used  merely  to 
serve  as  a  general  guide  to  the  more  mature  judgments  of 
the  teacher.  When  grades  become  the  determining  factor 
in  all  school  promotions  they  become  the  sole  goal  for  which 
the  students  strive  and  the  means  in  education  become  sub- 
stituted for  the  ends,  while  the  ends  are  lost  sight  of  entirely. 
Education  then  becomes  a  failure  and  its  processes  worthy 
of  the  severest  condemnation.  It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  for 
the  sake  of  justice  there  must  be  some  keeping  of  grades. 
Oftentimes  where  the  teacher's  judgment  is  to  be  trusted 
entirely,  the  nature  and  occasion  of  the  mistakes  and  neg- 
lects of  pupils  serve  to  magnify  them  as  evil,  while  on  the 
other  hand  like  causes  serve  to  minimize  them,  in  each  of 
which  cases  injustice  obviously  is  done.  Again,  with  time 
the  kind  of  recitation  made  by  certain  pupils  is  lost  sight  of 
under  some  circumstances,  while  those  made  by  others  are 
easily  remembered,  all  without  any  evil  intent  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher.  Further  the  grades  made  in  a  given  subject  im- 
mediately preceeding  the  time  of  recording  marks  may  become 
the  determining  factor  in  the  marks,  while  those  more  remote 
are  forgotten,  thus  again  doing  injustice  to  all,  to  some  by 
their  getting  the  good  out  of  the  more  recent  recitation  and 
failing  to  get  the  bad  out  of  the  more  remote  or  vice  versa. 
Thus  we  see  that  for  the  best  good  both  of  pupil  and  teacher 
an  accurately  kept  system  of  grades  is  necessary;  necessary 
to  the  pupil  in  order  that  he  may  feel  sure  that  he  is  getting 
all  that  he  is  earning  and  also  that  he  may  know  that  he  is 
being  watched  in  his  work  from  day  to  day ;  necessary  to  the 
teacher  in  order  that  he  mav  be  sure  that  he  is  dealing:  out 
justice  alike  and  at  the  same  time  protecting  himself  from  any 
unfair  criticism.  In  all  of  this  he  will  have  at  all  times  in 
his  possession  a  very  powerful  means  of  stimulating  the  pupils 


230  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

to  good  work.  However,  when  it  comes  to  the  mere  ques- 
tion of  promotion  much  of  the  mechanical  method  of  em- 
ploying grades  to  determine  whether  or  not  a  pupil  should 
be  promoted  as  was  said  above,  might  be  done  away  with  in 
most  cases  with  better  results.  Especially  is  this  true  when 
it  comes  to  examinations.  When  an  examination  really 
covers  generally  the  work  gone  over  by  the  pupil  it  may  be 
taken  usually  to  represent  the  student's  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject and  his  ability  to  master  it  as  well  as  the  quality  of  teach- 
ing he  has  received  in  it.  But  regard  must  always  be  had  for 
other  circumstances  entering  into  it  to  determine  the  result 
which  a  careful  teacher  who  knows  his  pupils  can  easily  de- 
tect. Pupils  of  a  nervous  temperament  need  never  be  ex- 
pected to  do  themselves  credit  in  cases  involving  great 
nervous  tension,  as  the  very  mention  of  examinations  will 
probably  excite  such  natures  and  cause  them  "  to  go  to 
pieces  "  and  "  forget  all  they  ever  knew  "  about  the  subject 
matter.  Sickness  or  general  debility  will  also  enter  in  as 
factors  contributing  to  determine  results.  In  all  such  cases 
greater  satisfaction  will  be  found  to  result  if  due  allowance 
is  made  for  the  pupil  when  the  facts  are  evident. 

One  of  the  objections  to  the  present  extensive  system  in 
grading  and  the  keeping  of  grades  is  its  wear  and  tear  upon 
the  teacher  by  the  amount  of  clerical  work  it  entails  upon 
him.  This  situation  has  to  some  extent  been  relieved  by  the 
use  of  printed  forms  supplied  by  the  school  authorities  which 
only  require  filling  in  and  signing  by  the  teacher.  But  even 
with  this  there  is  still  enormous  work  to  be  done  upon  the 
reports  before  it  is  time  to  fill  in  the  blank  report  forms. 
There  must  be  adding  and  dividing  to  obtain  averages.  This 
work  must  be  correct.  That  is  an  absolute  necessity.  Now 
imagine  a  teacher  with  fifty  pupils  (many  have  a  hundred 
or  more),  each  having  on  an  average  six  different  subjects 
for  marking.  Add  to  this  attendance,  punctuality  and  de- 
portment. There  are  fifty  cards  to  be  filled  out  and  aver- 
aged up  requiring  six,  eight,  ten  or  more  hours  of  work.  If 
the  time  could  be  had  for  this  work  in  anything  like  rea- 
sonable amounts  this  would  not  be  so  bad.  But  most  of  it 
has  to  be  snatched  up  during  the  school  days  and  evenings 


Routine  and  Accessory  Duties  of  the  Teacher      £31 

at  home  between  times  in  amounts  often  of  ten  and  fifteen 
minutes.  The  recording  of  the  marks  of  the  day  will  take 
up  all  of  the  spare  time  of  a  teacher.  Now  if  for  the  sake 
of  convenience  weekly  records  are  made  the  teacher  will  have 
practically  all  of  his  extra  hours  taken  up.  Fortunately 
most  grade  reports  are  made  out  by  the  month,  which  does 
help  some.  But  still  the  strain  is  great,  much  too  great  for 
one  already  so  heavily  taxed  as  a  teacher.  In  addition  to 
these,  there  are  the  term  or  semester,  and  yearly  reports, 
both  the  grade  reports  to  parents  and  the  grade  and  official 
reports  to  the  school  authorities,  to  be  made  out.  Many  a 
teacher  has  gone  into  the  schoolroom,  vigorous  and  strong, 
bright  and  cheerful  but  a  few  years  of  this  grind  has  brought 
him  to  the  stage  of  the  proverbial  anaemic,  sallow  in  color 
and  lifeless  in  action,  a  bundle  of  nerves  and  a  magazine  of 
abnormally  stored  energy,  that  wins  for  school  teaching  the 
name  of  the  "  drudge  "  profession  and  for  the  teacher  the 
name  "  scold." 

These  reports  are  not  without  their  purpose  in  the  plan 
and  process  of  education,  but  the  question  concerning  them 
naturally  is,  is  the  purpose  they  serve  sufficiently  urgent  and 
mandatory  to  warrant  their  preparation  at  such  an  enor- 
mous cost  to  the  vitality  and  working  ability  of  the  teacher? 
The  teacher  who  spends  his  out  of  school  hours  even  into 
the  night  perspiring  and  fretting  over  "  averages  "  and  "  re- 
ports "  when  he  lies  down  to  rest  is  too  overwrought  to  soon 
go  to  sleep  or  when  asleep  to  get  much  rest  and  recuperation 
out  of  it.  Without  this  rest  and  recuperation  from  sleep 
and  with  a  constant  demand  upon  his  energies  in  the  school- 
room day  after  day  he  soon  wears  away  under  the  grind  and 
is  in  no  way  prepared  for  matters  of  discipline,  punishment 
nor  even  for  matters  of  instruction.  The  result  is  that  the 
school  work  suffers  and  the  school  runs  down  while  the  teacher 
gradually  becomes  unfit  for  the  proper  performance  of  any 
part  of  his  work.  Besides  this,  the  time  for  home  study  and 
home  preparation  of  the  lesson  so  necessary  for  successful 
teaching  is  taken  up  in  this  way  and  the  more  important  du- 
ties of  the  schoolroom  pay  for  it.  Of  course,  the  parents 
through  reports  learn  just  what  their  children  are  doing  in 


232  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

the  school  in  a  way  and  the  school  authorities  —  the  prin- 
cipal, superintendent,  commissioner  or  board  —  also  get  some 
idea  of  attendance,  enrollment  work  covered,  etc.,  while 
the  pupils  on  their  side  get  some  idea  of  their  progress  and 
may  guess  whether  or  not  they  are  likely  to  pass.  But  many 
a  parent  signs  the  report  without  even  looking  at  it  and 
returns  it ;  or  he  instructs  some  older  brother  or  sister  to  do 
it,  or  he  may  even  leave  the  report  for  the  child  himself  to 
sign  and  return.  Whereupon  the  whole  aim  of  the  teacher 
in  doing  and  the  school  authority  in  having  done,  this  enor- 
mous amount  of  work  that  has  cost  the  teacher  so  much  in 
time  and  effort  being  thus  lightly  cast  aside  without  any 
material  effect  upon  those  for  whom  it  was  prepared,  fails 
entirely.  In  many  cases  it  is  true,  the  report  is  carefully 
examined  and  the  sending  of  a  report  means  much  both  to 
parent  and  child.  But  the  question  is,  does  it  pay  to  place 
such  burdens  upon  the  teacher  at  such  cost  to  him  in  health 
and  working  efficiency?  Principals,  superintendents  and 
others  in  authority  must  have  reports  in  order  to  have  direct 
knowledge  of  the  working  of  the  system  and  be  able  to  prop- 
erly administer  and  direct  it.  In  many  cases  taxes  are  as- 
sessed and  appropriations  made  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
school,  which  funds  are  pro-rated  out  with  the  facts  con- 
tained in  some  of  the  reports,  demanded  by  the  school  author- 
ities, as  a  basis.  These  reports  then  would  seem  to  be  neces- 
sary for  the  very  existence  of  the  school  as  it  exists  under  our 
present  system  of  administration.  A  fact  that  serves  to 
some  extent  to  compensate  for  this  form  of  report  making  and 
clerical  work  constitutes  one  form  of  its  justification.  So 
that,  while  much  of  this  form  of  work  entailed  upon  the 
teacher  seems  to  be  necessary,  it  is  a  fact  that  it  induces 
upon  him  a  serious  and  constant  expenditure  of  energy  so 
much  needed  for  other  work.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  if 
for  no  other  reason  than  for  the  sake  of  the  schoolwork 
proper  and  the  health  of  the  teacher  these  duties  ought  to 
be  reduced.  The  system  of  making  reports  should  be  re- 
duced in  the  frequency  of  issuing  reports  and  the  system  or 
marking  so  changed  as  to  give  some  noticeable  relief.  If 
this  change  reduced  the  number  of  stimulants   applicable 


Routine  and  Accessory  Duties  of  the  Teacher      233 

to  obtain  good  work  others  should  be  invented  that  will 
bring  out  desired  results.  These  a  resourceful  teacher  can 
readily  invent,  there  being  too  many  means  already  known 
to  need  mentioning  here. 

Another  time  problem  with  the  teacher  is  the  question  of 
correcting  exercises  at  home.  Much  of  the  work  of  the 
class  is  such  that  work  leading  up  to  it  or  arising  from  it 
must  be  done  outside  of  school  hours  by  the  teacher.  The 
demand  for  teaching  in  the  schoolroom  will  not  permit  its 
correction  there,  and  in  general  the  duties  of  discipline  and 
punishment  in  the  form  of  detention  after  school  together 
with  the  keeping  of  daily  records  of  the  recitation,  attend- 
ance, punctuality,  etc.,  make  it  impossible  to  correct  it  after 
school  hours.  The  remaining  alternative  is  to  correct  the 
work  at  home.  This  then  becomes  another  tax  to  sap  the 
teacher's  strength  and  vitality  and  reduce  still  lower  his 
energy  remaining  for  the  work  of  the  schoolroom.  Of  course 
there  is  good  in  it  and  the  work  the  next  day  can  progress 
better  if  the  grades  and  papers  are  ready  for  the  pupil  and 
he  can  learn  of  his  mistakes  and  the  manner  of  correcting 
them.  Too,  once  work  of  this  kind  is  taken  home  for  correc- 
tion, in  order  that  the  student  may  not  get  the  idea  that  the 
teacher  is  lax  or  that  that  kind  of  work  is  not  important  and 
because  of  it  grow  indifferent  to  it,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
marking  of  them  be  carried  through  and  reported  back  as 
soon  as  possible  to  the  pupil.  Happy  and  fortunate  is  the 
teacher,  therefore,  who  can  reduce  this  kind  of  work  that 
he  cannot  devise  means  to  correct  in  the  schoolroom,  to  a 
minimum  without  sacrificing  the  essential  ends  of  the  school 
processes.  Both  for  his  own  best  good  and  that  of  the 
school  he  should  not  be  overtaxed  by  such  kind  of  work. 
There  is  much  virtue  at  times  in  having  the  pupils  themselves 
correct  their  own  exercises  within  the  recitation  period,  each 
correcting  the  work  of  another  and  returning  it,  the  teacher 
supervising  closely  and  directing  the  whole.  This,  however, 
has  its  dangers  and  may  at  times  lead  to  ill  feeling  between 
the  students  and  sometimes  to  injustice,  but  a  watchful 
teacher  can  readily  detect  all  evil  tendencies  and  check  them 
before  harm  is  done.     Especially,  if  he  never  lets  the  work 


Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

get  entirely  away  from  him  and  looks  over  the  work  freely 
either  while  it  is  being  done  or  afterwards.  To  its  credit 
it  might  be  said  that  this  practice  will  tend  to  give  the  pupils 
an  insight  into  the  methods  of  the  teacher  and  at  the  same 
time  will  tend  to  bring  the  facts  of  the  lesson  before  the  pupil 
in  a  new  light,  thereby  serving  to  make  the  facts  more  easily 
retained  by  the  pupil. 

About  the  drain  of  these  routine  duties  outside  of  the 
school  hours  upon  the  teacher  there  is  much  to  be  said. 
While  the  keeping  of  grades  is  necessary  for  the  proper  esti- 
mation of  the  amount  and  quality  of  work  each  pupil  does  and 
figures  more  or  less  prominently  in  his  promotion  from  one 
grade  to  another ;  while  the  correcting  of  work  at  home  is  to 
some  extent  necessary  for  the  successful  and  proper  admin- 
istration of  the  system  that  regular  reports  be  made  to  the 
principal,  the  superintendent  and  others  in  authority,  in  fact 
while  it  may  be  necessary  for  all  of  the  little  routine  duties 
of  the  schoolroom  to  be  done,  it  is  equally  necessary  for  the 
instructing  work  of  the  school  and  the  discipline  and  punish- 
ment incident  thereto  that  the  burdens  of  the  school  work 
outside  of  school  hours,  upon  the  teacher  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  and  that  minimum  which  must  be  done  without  fur- 
ther reduction  should  be  facilitated  in  every  way  by  the  vari- 
ous mechanical  devices  available,  in  order  that  the  teacher 
may  have  as  much  of  an  opportunity  for  study  and  prepara- 
tion of  his  daily  work  and  the  husbanding  of  his  strength  for 
that  general  good  nature,  poise,  sympathy  and  high  degree  of 
scholarship  both  in  the  specific  knowledge  of  the  lesson  and 
the  broader  field  of  fact  so  necessary  for  good  discipline, 
good  control  and  successful  instruction.  If  it  is  true  that 
without  this  drudgery  work  little  effective  teaching  is  pos- 
sible, it  is  equally  true  that  with  it  there  is  so  fearful  a  drain 
on  the  energies  of  the  teacher  that  even  when  the  work  is  re- 
duced to  a  minimum  by  such  available  means  as  printed  blank 
forms  it  still  so  taxes  the  teacher  that  his  force  as  a  factor  in 
the  schoolroom  work  is  so  weakened  in  time  by  them,  until  it  is 
a  question  as  to  which  should  really  be  given  precedence. 
Since  the  latter  effects  are  not  secondary  for  the  schoolwork 
and  primary  for  the  health  of  the  teacher  and  the  proper 


Routine  and  Accessory  Duties  of  the  Teacher      £35 

education  of  the  pupil,  it  is  unquestionably  better  that  if 
either  one  is  to  suffer  that  this  mechanical  work  suffer  if  to 
no  greater  extent  than  by  a  reduction  in  quantity.  Unfor- 
tunately there  are  no  statistics  either  upon  the  health  or 
mortality  among  teachers,  but  certain  it  is  that  these  facts 
are  potent  in  affecting  both  the  health  and  mortality  of 
teachers.  Apart  from  'this,  a  fact  that  is  even  more  im- 
portant to  school  authorities,  the  drudgery  of  schoolwork 
especially  in  this  line  of  duties  in  conjunction  with  the  matter 
of  salary  is  the  cause  of  making  the  profession  of  teaching 
only  a  stepping  stone  to  other  professions  with  a  wholesale 
defection  from  it  into  them,  a  fact  which  is  a  source  of  great 
inconvenience  and  hindrance  to  the  processes  of  education 
along  all  lines  and  in  all  grades  of  the  work. 

II.       ACCESSORY    DUTIES 

Professional  Courtesy  Among  Teachers.  The  subject  of 
the  accessory  duties  of  the  school  has  not  received  attention 
widely  from  the  authors  of  textbooks  on  this  subject.  How- 
ever this  field  is  growing  and  more  likely  will  be  considered 
of  an  ever  growing  importance  to  the  general  success  of  the 
school.  The  subject  of  professional  courtesy  among  teach- 
ers though  it  has  always  received  much  consideration  both 
with  tongue  and  pen,  has  seldom  been  considered  a  duty  of 
the  teacher,  much  less  has  it  ever  been  considered  in  the  light 
perhaps  of  an  accessory  duty  of  the  teacher.  Let  it  be  said, 
however,  that  the  spirit  of  professional  courtesy  among 
teachers  is  growing.  But  needless  to  say  it  will  still  stand 
considerable  improvement.  In  medicine  professional  courtesy 
is  at  its  height,  among  men  of  the  professions.  Lawyers 
also  appear  to  maintain  a  high  quality  of  professional 
courtesy  among  themselves.  Members  of  the  teaching  pro- 
fession have  not,  it  seems,  arrived  at  the  same  high  point  of 
courteous  consideration  from  their  fellows,  although  it  is  a 
contemporary  profession  with  law  and  medicine.  This 
charge  of  lack  of  professional  courtesy  may  be  borne  out  in 
truth  by  fact,  or  it  may  be  that  simply  because  the  teaching 
profession  is  a  circumscribed  restricted  and  much  "  bossed  " 
profession  the  agents  here  not  having  the  same  freedom  in 


236  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

action  and  method  nor  finality  in  judgment  that  the  other 
sister  professions  have,  the  fact  of  lack  of  professional 
courtesy  among  them  may  be  only  a  semblance  brought  out 
by  this  restriction  under  which  they  are  employed  and  work, 
while  at  bottom  law  and  medicine,  as  professions  may  suffer 
as  much  from  the  lack  of  professional  courtesy  as  does  teach- 
ing. Too  it  might  be  charged  that  the  teaching  profession 
is  overcrowded  and  competition  is  resultingly  closer.  But, 
whatever  the  causes,  much  of  the  ill-repute  that  has  fallen 
upon  the  profession  and  much  of  the  weakness  and  foibles 
of  the  "  professors  "  have  been  heaped  upon  it  by  members 
of  the  profession  themselves.  The  teaching  profession  is 
often  degraded  by  incompetent  material  and  often  "  purged  " 
of  competent  material  by  the  small  salary  paid  for  the 
amount  of  preparation  and  work  demanded  by  it.  But  it 
must  ever  remain  true  that  teaching  is  one  of  the  highest  and 
noblest  if  not  the  highest  and  noblest  of  the  professions 
known  and  open  to  men  for  practice.  We  often  hear  poet, 
press  and  public  extol  the  sacredness  of  the  teaching  profes- 
sion, but  few  of  us  ever  give  to  the  matter  consideration  suf- 
ficiently serious  to  gain  anything  like  the  true  appreciation  of 
the  real  meaning  of  teaching  to  civilization  and  humanity. 
Teaching  as  carried  on  by  the  school  of  to-day  is  a  highly 
developed  method  of  systematized  world  progress.  Without 
the  processes  of  the  school  the  world  of  tomorrow  would  be 
without  material  for  its  myriad  activities  and  without  compe- 
tent leadership  in  its  many  crises  and  critical  periods.  With 
poor  or  meager  processes  the  material  for  advancing  civiliza- 
tion becomes  correspondingly  poor  and  meager,  and  progress 
itself  is  endangered  thereby.  The  responsibility  resting  upon 
the  school  is  a  serious  one.  The  cause,  therefore,  which  the 
school  espouses  is  a  lofty  one.  All  the  more  merit  attaches 
itself  to  the  laborers  because  the  work  must  be  done  with  com- 
paratively slight  pay.  With  the  exception  of  preaching, 
teaching  is  the  most  poorly  paid  of  all  the  professions.  Agi- 
tation has  done  much  to  increase  the  salary  of  the  teachers, 
but  much  still  remains  to  be  done.  All  of  these  drawbacks 
should  serve  to  unite  the  school  teachers  more  closely  and 
make  them  more  loyal  one  to  another.     As  a  profession  teach- 


Routine  and  Accessory  Duties  of  the  Teacher      £S7 

ing  will  never  come  into  its  own  until  teachers  show  more 
courtesy  and  respect  professionally  one  to  another.  The 
consciousness  of  a  common  but  high  calling,  community  of 
interest  and  labor  together  with  a  united  and  aggressive  op- 
position always  leading  the  attack  and  assailed  on  all  sides, 
if  the  profession  expects  ever  to  attain  its  own,  it  must  unite 
within  its  own  ranks,  develop  professional  faith  and  courtesy 
and  meet  the  common  enemy  with  a  united  front.  For  no 
profession  is  so  constantly  on  the  carpet  for  complaints  and 
fault  finding  as  school  teaching  is. 

These  words,  however,  must  not  be  mistaken  as  a  plea  for 
"  clannishness  "  among  the  teachers.  This  is  not  meant,  nor 
is  such  even  advisable.  This  would  bring  upon  them  renewed 
opprobrium  and  not  undeservedly.  What  is  meant  by  this  is 
a  plea  for  teachers  to  uphold  one  another  in  their  methods 
and  honest,  sincere  practices,  kindly  forbearance  one  with 
another,  fellowship  at  all  times  and  encouragement.  Nothing 
is  so  good  but  that  it  has  a  soul  of  badness  in  it ;  nothing  so 
bad  but  that  it  has  a  soul  of  goodness  in  it.  Method  by 
which  one  teacher  succeeds  will  fail  utterly  in  the  hands  of 
another  and  vice  versa.  Neither  all  of  the  good,  all  of 
human  capacity  for  the  performance  of  labor,  nor  all  of  the 
means  with  which  to  do,  rests  with  a  single  individual  or 
group  of  individuals.  Considering  these  facts  many  a  time 
a  word  of  encouragement  and  support  wisely  spoken  will  be 
the  cause  of  tiding  a  teacher  over  a  serious  difficulty.  Teach- 
ers should  cultivate  high  motives  and  high  standards  each  for 
himself  and  expect  the  same  for  others,  always  judging  the 
acts  of  each  other  by  this  standard  set  up  for  self.  If  teach- 
ers show  that  they  have  little  or  no  respect  for  each  other's 
worth  they  have  no  reason  to  expect  the  general  public  to  do 
otherwise.  Unfair  criticism  here  is  ruinous  and  very  little 
criticism  even  though  it  may  be  just  is  damaging,  to  all. 
Patrons  and  pupils  are  both  quick  to  perceive  any  evidence 
of  depreciation  of  one  teacher  by  another  and  generally 
equally  quick  to  turn  such  a  state  of  affairs  to  advantage. 
Many  a  case  of  severe  punishment  and  discipline  has  been 
made  necessary  in  the  school  room  by  some  word  or  outward 
sign  of  criticism  or  disapproval  of  one  teacher  by  another 


238  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

teacher  in  the  presence  of  a  pupil.  While  untold  humilia- 
tion and  even  loss  of  position  has  fallen  upon  teachers 
through  unkind  and  unfair  criticism  from  their  fellow  work- 
ers. Principals  suffer  more  personally  from  this  lack  of 
professional  courtesy  than  the  teachers  do.  It  is  distinctly 
human  to  feel  that  we  can  do  something  better  than  some  one 
else,  or  that  if  another  method  which  appealed  to  us,  but  not 
to  the  other  fellow,  had  been  followed,  all  would  not  only  have 
been  otherwise,  but  better.  The  point  is,  however  much  we 
may  feel  so,  we  should  express  it  but  little  if  ever  and  by  all 
means  it  should  be  said  nowhere,  where  it  can  possibly  spread 
and  in  time  affect  the  general  influence  of  the  individual  for 
good.  Teachers  all  owe  it  to  themselves,  to  their  fellow 
teachers,  the  pupils  and  the  profession  at  large  to  cooperate 
loyally  with  those  with  whom  they  labor  and  at  the  same  time 
to  do  all  they  can  to  improve  the  standard  of  the  teaching 
profession.  Miscellaneous  criticism  is  bad  at  all  times,  but 
especially  is  it  bad  when  it  falls  upon  inexperienced  or  ma- 
licious ears,  however  well  intending,  honest  or  even  deserving 
the  criticism  may  have  been. 

Professional  Organizations  Among  Teachers.  A  great 
movement  that  has  served  to  increase  the  professional  spirit 
among  teachers  is  the  formation  of  various  forms  of  teachers' 
organizations,  such  as  the  Teachers'  Associations,  Institutes 
and  Reading  Circles,  etc.  Through  these  communion  and 
fellowship,  exchange  of  views  and  experiences,  hearing  of  lec- 
tures and  receiving  of  special  instruction  all  tend  to  increase 
professional  ability,  raise  professional  pride  and  establish 
among  teachers  a  community  of  feeling  and  interests  made 
possible  in  no  other  way.  Teachers'  associations  are  being 
organized  everywhere  in  state,  county  and  city  throughout 
the  country.  Patrons  and  school  officials  are  seeing  the  need 
of  them  and  are  appreciating  the  good  they  do  to  such  an 
extent  that  they  are  not  only  approving  of  and  encouraging 
them  but  they  are  making  attendance  upon  and  membership 
in  them  compulsory,  even  in  some  cases  going  so  far  as  to  pay 
for  the  extra  attendance  upon  them  or  to  withhold  salary 
for  the  session  when  the  teachers  do  not  attend.  In  many 
instances  thev  ^so  appropriate  money  for  securing  compe- 


Routine  and  Accessory  Duties  of  the  Teacher      £39 

tent  talent  for  proper  instruction  along  various  lines.  Once 
in  a  while  it  is  true  sessions  of  these  organizations  descend 
to  the  level  of  mere  political  gatherings,  where  the  struggle 
for  office  overshadows  all  else,  but  happily  such  sessions 
are  the  exceptions  rather  than  the  rule,  thus  not  materially 
affecting  the  capacity  of  these  organizations  for  good  educa- 
tionally and  otherwise  both  to  the  teacher  and  the  profes- 
sion. 

Home  Visiting  by  the  Teacher.  The  question  of  home  vis- 
iting sometimes  becomes  a  potent  consideration  with  the 
school  teacher.  Many  teachers  have  not  much  use  for  the 
method  and  we  must  confess  that  it  does  not  always  bring  the 
results  hoped  for.  At  times  it  has  even  been  known  to  make 
matters  of  discipline  and  work  in  the  school  more  difficult 
than  before.  But  even  with  that  it  is  a  practice  commonly 
in  vogue  and  has  its  good  results.  In  the  hands  of  a  skillful 
teacher  it  has  been  known  to  help  to  tide  over  many  a  difficult 
situation.  If  it  does  not  do  anything  else  but  give  the  teacher 
an  insight  into  the  home  life  and  surrounding  of  the  child  and 
the  nature  and  temperament  of  the  parents,  the  instincts  and 
tendencies  which  the  child  has  inherited,  thereby  awakening 
in  new  channels  the  teacher's  sympathy  and  widening  his  un- 
derstanding as  well  as  showing  just  how  much  cooperation 
the  teacher  may  expect  from  the  parents  in  managing  the 
child  it  has  more  than  paid  for  itself.  In  doing  this  much  it 
will  have  put  the  teacher  well  on  the  way  toward  a  full  mas- 
tery of  the  situation.  Very  often  it  is  found  out  that  brutal- 
ity exists  in  the  home  in  which  case  kindness  will  probably 
bring  a  good  side  of  the  child  to  the  front.  Other  parental 
peculiarities  may  be  observed  which  may  serve  to  throw  some 
light  on  the  nature  and  habits  of  the  child.  Very  often,  be- 
cause there  is  no  opportunity  for  home  study  or  encourage- 
ment of  it,  home  work  from  the  pupil  when  not  done  can  be 
understood  and  handled  so  as  to  win  the  child  to  more  suc- 
cessful efforts.  Again  when  there  is  no  sympathy  with  the 
school  and  the  influence  of  the  parent  is  exercised  to  disinter- 
est the  child  and  have  him  stop  school,  counteracting  forces 
can  be  set  to  work  to  win  and  hold  him.  If  it  is  a  matter  of 
personal  cleanliness  a  visit  to  the  home  will  enable  a  tactful 


£40  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

teacher  to  save  the  day  with  the  pupil.  If  the  home  influ- 
ences have  produced  any  mental  peculiarities  in  the  pupil 
that  are  hard  to  manage,  or  if  heredity  has  wrought  badly, 
in  either  case  such  knowledge  can  enable  the  teacher  to  read- 
just his  judgments  and  try  out  his  problem  in  a  new  way  with 
more  hope  of  success.  To  obtain  this  information  would 
more  than  pay  any  teacher  for  a  visit  to  the  home  of  a  pupil. 
That  there  is  a  large  possibility  of  good  in  the  practice  has 
always  been  known  and  recognized.  For  it  is  a  practice  that 
has  to  more  or  less  extent  always  been  advocated  by  experi- 
enced teachers,  principals,  superintendents,  school  authori- 
ties and  writers  upon  the  subject. 

In  visiting  the  homes  of  pupils  there  are  still  other  good 
effects  that  recommend  the  practice  favorably  to  the  minds 
of  most  earnest  and  well  intending  teachers.  Oftentimes  for 
example  physical  defects  appear  in  the  child  that  make 
against  him  and  which  it  is  evident  the  parent  has  never  no- 
ticed. A  visit  in  regard  to  them  therefore  will  often  become 
necessary.  Further  it  often  becomes  advisable  to  visit  par- 
ents and  learn  of  the  peculiarities  of  pupils,  especially  where 
such  marked  peculiarities  cannot  be  learned  from  other  teach- 
ers. Well  disposed  parents  are  often  glad  to  note  that  teach- 
ers are  sufficiently  interested  in  the  welfare  of  their  children 
to  visit  them,  especially  if  the  teacher  comes  to  make  a  good 
report  instead  of  a  bad  one.  Family  pride,  a  perennial 
reason  for  putting  spurs  to  children  in  school  work  is  often 
aroused  in  this  way.  Then,  too,  the  parent  can  "  get  to 
know  "  the  teachers  in  this  way,  a  fact  that  oftentimes  proves 
to  be  a  valuable  asset  in  the  teacher's  behalf.  It  is  never 
encouraging  for  parents  to  see  a  teacher  only  when  there  is  a 
complaint  to  be  made.  An  introduction  under  such  circum- 
stances is  always  an  unfortunate  one,  if  not  indeed,  a  bad 
one.  And  even  in  cases  where  there  are  bad  reports  to  be 
made  the  sting  of  it  may  be  removed  by  showing  at  the  same 
time  what  good  there  is  in  the  pupil  and  contrasting  it  with 
the  bad,  using  the  whole  as  an  argument  why  the  bad  should 
be  eliminated  and  why  the  parent  should  assist  in  bringing 
this  about.  A  hopeful  tone  is  always  beneficial,  especially 
when  accompanied  by  cheerfulness.     Bad  reports  should  not 


Routine  and  Accessory  Duties  of  the  Teacher      £41 

be  made  too  often.  Few  parents  are  willing  to  admit  that 
their  child  is  wholly  bad  and  hence  incorrigible  and  to  attempt 
to  convince  them  of  it  is  a  difficult  undertaking  fraught  with 
danger  for  the  welfare  of  the  teacher.  If  the  home  visit  does 
not  bring  the  desired  results,  the  situation  is  up  to  the  teacher 
and  he  must  handle  it  in  his  own  wisdom  and  at  discretion. 
The  teacher  should  always  possess  and  show  keen  interest  in 
his  work  and  that  of  his  pupils  and  carry  his  enthusiasm  into 
every  home  that  he  enters  whether  on  a  sad  or  a  pleasant 
errand.  This  will  not  only  beget  both  confidence  and  sup- 
port in  return  but  will  awaken  in  the  members  of  the  home  a 
kindly  reciprocal  interest  in  the  success  of  the  teacher.  This 
responsive  attitude  in  the  home  will  improve  steadily,  also, 
if  the  teacher  can  on  such  occasions  be  naturally  practical  in 
his  understanding  of  children  and  how  to  work  with  them. 
However,  this  matter  of  home  visiting  and  seeking  openly  aid 
from  the  parent  must  not  be  carried  too  far.  Parents  prefer 
to  feel  that  the  teacher  can  manage  the  situation  unaided  by 
them.  Such  parents  may  regard  such  appeals  as  an  evidence 
of  weakness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  and  become  dissatis- 
fied patrons  instead  of  satisfied  ones.  Also  many  parents  do 
not  wish  to  be  annoyed  by  the  teacher  about  their  child  or 
children  and  the  school  processes.  These  parents  have  sent 
their  children  to  school  to  get  rid  of  them  and  they  wish  that 
you  keep  them  and  control  and  teach  them  without  annoying 
them  with  the  problems  that  arise  in  this  process.  Where 
these  suggestions  are  considered  and  acted  upon  home  visit- 
ing will  be  found  to  have  virtues  that  those  who  have  never 
practiced  it  can  never  imagine. 

Arousing  an  Educational  Spirit.  Very  often  teachers  go 
into  a  community  to  teach  school  and  find  the  school  interest 
dead,  enrollment  small  and  habits  of  attendance  bad.  The 
cause  of  this  upon  investigation  will  be  found  out  to  be  either 
lack  of  interest  and  financial  support  by  the  school  authori- 
ties, or  by  bad  practices  either  morally  in  administering  the 
affairs  of  the  school  by  those  preceding,  or  by  cultivated 
indifference  to  education  and  educational  processes  in  the 
community  for  the  various  financial  or  social  ends  of  certain 
individuals  or  groups  of  individuals.     There  are  oftentimes 


243  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

accessory  contributing  causes  which  also  require  considera- 
tion. But,  whatever  be  the  causes  these  conditions  when 
found  existing,  these  require  the  immediate  attention  of  the 
teacher,  if  he  would  succeed.  If  the  fault  appears  to  lie 
chiefly  with  the  methods  and  indifference  of  the  school  au- 
thorities, there  is  the  place  to  begin.  Armed  with  the  facts 
and  the  wishes  of  the  patrons  he  can  with  ease  tactfully  ap- 
proach them,  state  his  case  and  endeavor  to  win  their  support 
to  helpful  measures.  Most  school  authorities  will  respond 
cheerfully  with  all  of  the  means  at  their  disposal  and  when  this 
is  exhausted,  they  will  oftentimes  lend  their  moral  support  to 
any  effort  to  gain  aid  in  other  ways  if  they  see  that  the 
teacher  is  competent,  enthusiastic  and  practical  and  that  he 
is  really  capable  of  doing  good. 

If  the  fault  lies  with  the  patrons  of  the  school,  the  place 
to  begin  is  in  the  schoolroom.  Strive  first  for  better  lessons, 
better  attendance  and  greater  interest.  Impress  the  children 
with  your  ability  and  enthusiasm  and  let  them  advertise  "  the 
new  teacher,"  the  things  he  is  doing  and  how  he  is  doing 
them.  When  the  children  attending  are  won,  follow  this  up 
by  efforts  on  the  outside.  The  parents  are  generally  won 
with  the  children.  But  where  not,  visits  among  the  influential 
laity  and  the  seeking  of  their  cooperation  is  advisable.  Next 
the  influence  of  the  local  ministry  might  with  profit  be  so- 
licited and  a  united  effort  made  to  arouse  the  educational 
interest  of  the  community.  At  appointed  times  special  ser- 
mons in  the  churches  could  be  preached  having  been  pre- 
viously advertised  and  announced  and  every  effort  put  forth 
to  secure  the  presence  of  those  elements  of  the  community 
whom  the  movement  is  intended  to  reach  and  affect.  The 
nature  of  these  educational  sermons  may  best  be  practical  and 
of  local  concern.  In  addition  to  these,  special  work  by  the 
school  pupils  may  be  prepared  for  exhibition  until  there  is  a 
fitting  amount  on  hand,  of  a  quality  to  invite  favorable  com- 
ment and  impression,  whereupon  at  an  entertainment  given 
by  the  pupils  of  the  school  or  during  a  regular  session  it 
might  all  be  put  on  exhibition  with  much  benefit  to  the  school, 
serving  to  arouse  the  desired  interest  in  the  school  and  its 
work.     The  good  effect  of  this  kind  of  work  on  a  community 


Routine  and  Accessory  Duties  of  the  Teacher      243 

if  successfully  and  creditably  carried  out  can  hardly  be  esti- 
mated. Much  of  the  apathy  and  indifference  of  a  community 
toward  a  school  and  its  work  is  due  to  previous  bad  methods, 
bad  management,  inefficiency  and  consequent  bad  results, 
until  the  patrons  have  grown  discouraged  and  felt  perhaps 
that  not  only  were  most  teachers  bad  or  of  no  account,  but 
that  school  itself  was  a  useless  luxury,  that  a  community 
was  just  as  well  off  without  as  with,  and  where  their  children 
did  attend  the  sooner  they  were  through  it  and  through  with 
it  the  better.  The  kind  of  method  suggested  above  will  serve 
materially  to  change  this  view  for  the  better  and  the  teacher 
will  soon  see  that  a  new  hope  has  been  awakened  in  the 
patrons  and  a  new  interest  created  in  the  work  of  the  school. 
This  can  be  made  the  basis  of  gaining  a  larger  attendance  and 
of  doing  better  work  with  much  more  ease  in  maintaining  dis- 
cipline and  order.  Many  children  who  had  abandoned  school 
as  something  undesirable  will  be  found  returning  and  the 
teacher  will  see  that  he  is  doing  effective  work  and  has  the 
sympathy  and  cooperation  of  the  entire  community,  both 
patrons  and  school  authorities.  Of  course,  a  large  attend- 
ance does  not  make  a  good  school,  neither  does  it  tend  always 
to  increase  the  working  efficiency  of  the  school,  nor  is  it  in- 
tended to  convey  that  impression  here.  It  is  a  fact,  how- 
ever, that  all  other  things  being  equal,  the  larger  the  attend- 
ance upon  a  school,  the  greater  is  its  power  for  good  and 
the  further  does  its  influence  extend. 

In  many  counties  in  the  various  states  throughout  the 
country  the  funds  obtainable  for  school  purposes  are  not 
sufficient  to  run  the  school  more  than  from  three  to  six 
months.  That  this  term  u  too  short  to  be  of  any  material 
good  to  the  community  is  obvious.  Where  the  movements 
suggested  above  have  been  instituted  with  success  and  the 
patrons  and  authorities  see  that  the  school  is  doing  good 
they  are  generally  willing  to  make  individual  contributions  to 
extend  the  work.  Cases  are  on  record  where  by  community 
rallies  school  terms  have  been  raised  from  the  minimum  to 
six,  eight  or  even  nine  months,  all  under  the  competent  lead- 
ership of  the  teacher  and  through  the  faith  which  the  teacher 
has  created  in  others  by  the  success  of  his  methods,  his  gen- 


244  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

eral  ability  and  his  enthusiasm.  To  be  sure  such  work 
ought  not  to  fall  on  the  teacher,  but  if  conditions  demand  it 
and  the  need  is  upon  the  community,  who  more  interested  and 
who  more  competent  than  the  teacher  should  be,  can  be  ex- 
pected to  do  it?  If  the  teacher  aims  to  render  real  and 
efficient  service  in  a  community  he  must  do  what  his  hands 
find  to  do  and  aim  to  do  that  well. 

Neighborhood  Meetings.  A  popular  method  of  drawing 
the  school  nearer  to  the  patron,  carrying  the  patron  nearer 
to  the  school  and  arousing  in  the  patron  greater  interest  in 
school  work  and  its  success  is  by  means  of  periodically  hold- 
ing neighborhood  meetings  and  community  conferences. 
These  have  been  particularly  useful  in  the  South  where  edu- 
cational interest  is  at  what  we  might  say  below  par.  In 
these  neighborhood  meetings  and  conferences  questions  of 
general  community  interests  come  up  and  methods  of  solving 
them  are  devised.  In  some  of  them  instructions  in  specific 
methods  of  various  kinds  of  work  are  offered,  the  audience 
being  instructed  in  something  of  practical  use  in  the  home, 
school  and  daily  walks  of  life.  These  meetings  may  and  gen- 
erally do  take  various  forms  to  obtain  certain  ends  locally 
desired.  When  they  take  the  form  of  mothers'  meetings  they 
are  of  particular  value  to  the  school,  as  the  mothers  of  any 
community  are  most  closely  connected  with  the  problems  of 
the  school  and  can  most  readily  and  capably  contribute  to 
their  solution.  Many  of  the  serious  problems  of  the  school 
arise  among  the  indigent  poor  of  the  community.  An  avenue 
of  approach  to  them  could  be  found  by  the  school  if  it  could 
come  in  the  form  of  charity  that  would  supply  to  those  in 
need  the  means  of  satisfying  the  immediate  physical  demands 
of  the  body  for  food,  shelter,  heat,  etc.  After  this  the  influ- 
ence of  the  school  could  be  extended  and  the  children  of  such 
families  brought  into  the  school.  This  done,  thereafter, 
when  in  need,  the  things  necessary  for  life,  health  and  school 
attendance  could  to  a  great  extent  be  supplied  through  this 
source.  Many  a  time  the  hardheartedness  of  the  world 
toward  the  unfortunate  and  its  indifference  to  their  suffering 
is  the  cause  of  the  presence  of  criminality  and  criminal  tend- 
ency among  the  poor.     If  society  would  reach  out  its  arms  to 


Routine  and  Accessory  Duties  of  the  Teaclier      £4*5 

the  children  in  such  cases,  extend  them  charity  and  help  and 
provide  means  of  getting  them  into  school  and  keeping  them 
there,  the  crimes  among  the  children  of  the  poor  would  be 
greatly  lessened.  The  school  teacher  if  not  actively  a  par- 
ticipant in  these  meetings  and  conferences  should  ally  himself 
with  them  and  keep  them  in  touch  with  the  needs  and  de- 
mands of  this  class  of  pupils  and  invite  their  help  and  co- 
operation in  creating  the  means  for  them,  whereby  they  can 
come  within  the  sphere  of  influence  of  the  school.  There 
are  also  other  problems  of  the  school  which  these  kinds  of 
meetings  could  assist  in  solving.  They  can  do  much  to  have 
the  salaries  of  the  teachers  raised,  improve  the  school  build- 
ing, the  school  grounds,  enlarge  and  improve  the  school 
equipment,  extend  the  school  term,  increase  the  attendance, 
raise  the  curriculum  and  contribute  in  a  general  way  to  the 
extension  of  the  influence  of  the  school  for  good,  and  con- 
tribute materially  to  the  solution  of  its  varied  and  complex 
problems. 

The  Teacher's  Value  to  the  Community.  From  the  above 
it  is  evident  that  the  teacher  who  wishes  will  find  a  broad 
field  of  activity  for  the  use  of  his  capacities  and  energies. 
In  the  light  of  this,  the  teacher  who  can  allow  his  school 
duties  to  begin  with  the  opening  exercises  of  the  school  day 
and  to  end  with  the  closing  hours  of  school  in  the  afternoon 
is  doing  but  little  of  the  great  work  before  him  to  earn  his 
pay,  however  small  it  may  be.  That  teacher  whose  sphere  of 
influence  is  restricted  within  the  four  walls  of  the  school  house 
is  a  factor  so  insignificant  in  the  affairs  of  men  that  he  is 
more  a  burden  to  society  than  a  benefit  to  it.  The  true 
teacher  constitutes  the  leavening  in  the  community  that 
"  leaveneth  the  whole."  By  his  moral  force,  strength  of  char- 
acter and  model  of  conduct  he  should  raise  the  community 
standards.  Once  he  has  worked  himself  well  into  the  forward 
movements  of  the  community,  the  standing  thus  gained  may 
with  ease  be  turned  into  a  force  to  raise  the  standard  of  the 
school  and  intensify  its  power  for  good  by  instilling  into  the 
pupil  a  strong  desire  for  higher  things,  higher  and  nobler 
ideals,  of  men  and  measures.  Where,  however,  his  work  is  of 
such  nature  or  proportion  that  he  cannot  take  the  initiative 


Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

in  movements  for  community  advancement  he  should  consider 
it  his  duty  to  cooperate  and  work  with  others  in  all  such 
movements  and  to  give  to  all  forms  of  social  gatherings,  civic 
meetings  and  general  movements  for  social  uplift,  his  spare 
time  and  surplus  energies.  Besides  the  consciousness  there- 
from of  doing  good  in  a  community  and  therefore  having  its 
love,  confidence  and  respect,  his  efforts  will  react  upon  the 
school  enrollment,  attendance  and  good  conduct  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils  that  will  make  the  work  of  the  school  teacher 
much  more  pleasurable  and  which  will  raise  materially  the 
working  efficiency  of  the  school.  It  must  not  be  expected 
that  all  of  these  numerous  activities  and  interests  of  the 
teacher  will  be  received  by  the  community  necessarily  without 
opposition  on  the  part  of  many.  This  will  hardly  be  the 
case.  Besides  being  wedded  to  old  ways  and  habits  of  living 
and  thinking  from  which  they  turn  but  slowly,  many  people 
look  askance  upon  new-comers,  especially  if  they  are  active 
and  aggressive  and  seem  to  have  an  abundance  of  new  ideas. 
Other  spirits  will  antagonize  him  and  his  movements  for  mere 
personal  reasons.  Others  still,  will  contend  that  he  has 
enough  to  do  to  keep  him  busy  in  the  school  room,  arguing 
that  if  he  does  that  well  he  will  have  rendered  the  desired 
service  to  the  community.  The  opposition  may  even  carry 
their  case  to  the  school  authorities.  But  this  extreme  will  be 
rare.  Despite  any  opposition  of  this  kind,  however,  the 
teacher  must  push  his  movements  forward  in  the  interest  of 
the  community,  securing  himself  at  all  times  by  keeping  the 
work  of  the  school  on  a  high  plane  and  allowing  none  of  it  to 
suffer  by  these  outside  activities.  Opposition  marks  the 
path  of  all  progress.  To  overcome  it  and  still  achieve  is  the 
effort  of  a  truly  great  soul. 

In  his  regular  routine  duties  the  teacher  already  has  much 
to  do.  Indeed  he  often  has  too  much  to  do.  To  add  to  these 
such  accessory  duties  as  are  here  outlined  is  to  heap  Ossa  on 
Pelion.  Again  in  many  cases  these  movements  may  not  meet 
with  success,  at  least  they  may  not  meet  with  such  success  as 
was  anticipated.  It  still  remains  true,  however,  that  where 
these  things  can  be  and  are  done  by  the  teacher,  the  school 
flourishes  and  humanity  is  benefited  by  his  having  been  in  the 


Routine  and  Accessory  Duties  of  the  Teacher      847 

world.  Men  afraid  of  opposition  and  criticism  never  turn 
the  world  upside  down  by  their  "  doughty  deeds."  Nor  do 
those  who  are  afraid  to  work  and  extend  their  energies  and 
those  who  do  not  even  risk  their  health  for  the  uplift  of  their 
fellows  ever  amount  to  much  in  the  world  or  make  the  world 
better  by  their  having  been  in  it.  Men  of  the  first  type  need 
to  learn  that  it  is  only  just  adverse  criticism  that  hurts  or 
will  perhaps  undo  one.  Those  of  the  second  will  do  well  to 
learn  that  "  it  is  better  to  wear  out  than  to  rust  out."  The 
world  is  little  in  need  of  any  individuals  either  of  the  first  or 
second  type.  Power-capacity  and  energy-supply  are  meas- 
sured  by  work,  action  and  work.  World  progress  and  hu- 
man uplift  are  accomplished  only  by  the  severest  forms  of 
work. 

REFERENCE  READING 

King's  "Education  for  Efficiency."     Chap.  VI. 

Arnold's  "  School  and  Class  Management."     Chap.  IV,  Sect.  4. 

Perry's  "  Management  of  a  City  School."     Chaps.  Ill,  V. 

Colgrove's  "  The  Teacher  and  the  School."    Chaps.  V,  X. 

Dinsmore's  "Teaching  a  Country  School."    Chap.  II. 

Pichard's  "  School  Supervision."     Chaps.  X,  XI. 

Johonnot's  "  Principles  and  Practice  of  Teaching."     Chap.  XV. 


CHAPTER  XI 

INSTRUMENTS  OF  PROGRESS  IN  THE 
SCHOOLROOM 

The  Courses  of  Study  and  the  Daily  Program 

I.  Courses  of  Study.  There  are  two  factors  above  all 
others  which  have  been  found  to  facilitate  the  work  in  the 
schoolroom  and  to  promote  definiteness  of  progress  in  the 
educational  processes.  These  are  the  courses  of  study  and 
the  daily  program.  So  important  has  the  question  of 
courses  of  study  been  found  to  be  that  experience  has  taught 
that  such  matters  cannot  safely  be  entrusted  entirely  to  the 
discretionary  knowledge  of  the  various  teachers.  As  a  re- 
sult when  teachers  begin  their  work  in  the  school  they  find 
their  courses  of  study  definitely  outlined  for  them.  When 
the  teacher  enters  his  schoolroom  to  begin  the  work  of  the 
year,  there  must  always  be  something  definite  for  him  to  do. 
He  must  know  first  of  all  just  what  he  is  to  do,  where  he  is 
to  begin  and  how  he  is  to  proceed  in  order  to  get  it  done. 
The  course  of  study  is  provided  for  this  purpose.  Lack  of 
experience  in  teaching  and  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  relative 
value  of  school  processes,  one  or  both,  may  contribute  to  pro- 
duce the  condition  and  the  causes  why  so  few  teachers  can 
be  trusted  to  make  out  a  proper  course  of  study  for  any 
given  grade  or  grades  that  they  are  to  teach.  Besides  that 
a  graded  school  to  be  successful  must  be  well  articulated ;  the 
work  of  each  grade  must  represent  a  distinct  part  of  the 
whole  course  and  each  part  of  it  must  fit  into  and  coordinate 
with  the  whole.  Furthermore,  the  work  of  the  common 
school  must  fit  into  that  of  the  high  school,  that  of  the  high 
school  into  that  of  the  college,  and  that  of  the  college  into 
that  of  the  university,  while  each  teacher  must  know  what 
progress  has  been  made  by  the  teacher  in  the  grades  below 

248 


Instruments  of  Progress  in  the  Schoolroom       249 

her  and  she  in  her  turn  must  know  what  is  expected  of  her 
by  the  teacher  or  teachers  in  the  grades  above  her.  In 
schools  where  departmental  work  is  carried  on,  the  demand 
for  a  course  of  study  becomes  even  more  imperative. 

Another  problem  that  makes  it  necessary  that  there  be  a 
standard  course  of  study  not  subject  to  individual  whims  is 
the  question  of  promotion  and  transfer  of  students  from  one 
building  to  another  or  from  one  locality  to  another  within  the 
state  and  county  or  without  their  bounds.  Whenever  living 
circumstances  make  it  necessary  for  a  child's  parents  to  move 
into  a  new  community  and  put  the  child  into  school  there, 
justice  and  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  in  the  grading  and  the 
work  of  the  school  demand  that  the  schools  of  the  general 
system  be  so  articulated  in  their  courses  of  study  that  the 
work  of  the  grade  in  the  new  community  and  that  in  the  for- 
mer community  have  sufficient  in  common  to  enable  the  child 
to  enter  the  new  school  without  serious  handicap  to  his 
work  or  without  loss  of  standing  in  the  grade  in  which  he  was 
before  moving  to  the  new  locality.  The  only  way  in  which 
this  end  can  be  properly  conserved  is  by  there  being  a  com- 
mon course  of  study  followed  in  general  by  all,  so  that  all 
of  the  grades  of  the  same  class  in  the  system  may  be  doing 
practically  the  same  kind  of  work  as  well  as  be  making 
practically  the  same  progress  in  that  work  during  a  stated 
period.  Because  of  the  independence  of  action  by  various 
city,  county  and  state  superintendents  of  education,  a  trait 
which  will  probably  always  characterize  our  educational 
work,  because  of  our  national  ideal  of  personal  liberty  and 
freedom  of  individual  action,  the  results  along  this  line  are 
not  as  uniform  as  would  perhaps  be  desirable  for  this  end. 
But  it  is  progressing  in  this  direction  and  in  time  will  no 
doubt  be  much  nearer  perfection.  Another  fact  in  this  con- 
nection is  that  the  normal  equilibrium  in  such  matters  is  con- 
siderably disturbed  by  the  agitation  and  reaction  against  the 
rote  and  groove  as  well  as  archaic  education,  brought  to  us 
from  classical  times.  This  reaction  has  introduced  us  into  a 
period  of  transition  from  the  form  and  rote  education  of  the 
past  to  the  substance  and  thought  education  of  the  present 
which  when  we  have  finished   the  transition  will  probably 


#50  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

bring  us  again  to  a  uniform  and  generally  well  articulated 
system.  Imagine  though,  apart  from  the  above,  what  a  fear- 
ful lack  of  uniformity  and  system  there  would  be  if  each 
teacher  were  allowed  to  use  his  individual  judgment  or  per- 
haps better  lack  of  judgment  in  such  matters.  It  matters 
not,  though,  how  uniform  the  course,  or  how  well  theoret- 
ically the  work  of  the  grades  may  articulate  the  one  into  the 
other,  there  will  always  be  local  conditions  peculiar  to  each 
community,  such  as  length  of  school  term,  number  of  teach- 
ers and  their  competency,  together  with  the  general  health 
of  the  community  and  the  various  accidents  incidental  to  all 
school  administration,  which  will  enter  from  time  to  time  to 
throw  the  system  out  of  gear  and  thereby  by  putting  one  be- 
hind the  other  break  the  uniformity  so  desirable  and  indeed  so 
necessary. 

The  Justification  of  Courses  of  Study.  Through  many 
years  of  experimental  work  extending  from  the  Grecian 
period  down  to  to-day,  the  question  of  courses  of  study  in 
the  school  has  received  attention  and  constantly  undergone 
changes  until  to-day  through  knowledge  gained  through  this 
experience  and  observation  there  is  a  very  definite  reason 
for  the  place  assigned  each  subject  in  the  course  and  the 
determination  of  the  amount  of  time  which  it  is  to  receive 
under  various  conditions  of  teaching  facilities  and  the  gen- 
eral purpose  of  education  as  judged  by  the  educational  ideals 
and  standards  of  various  countries,  states,  and  cities  and 
rural  communities.  It  is  obvious  that  the  kind  of  political 
institutions  in  a  country  will  determine  the  subjects  to  be 
taught  in  the  schools  of  that  country  as  well  as  the  relative 
amount  of  time  each  is  to  have  in  the  course.  The  course  of 
study  will  vary  if  only  in  its  minor  details;  that  for  a 
mining  section  differing  from  that  of  an  agricultural  section, 
while  that  for  a  commercial  center  will  vary  from  that  for  a 
manufacturing  center,  and  so  on.  The  same  will  be  true 
of  the  course  of  study  prepared  for  the  privileged  and  leisure 
classes  in  contradistinction  from  those  for  the  masses.  In 
republics  no  form  of  education  for  the  leisure  or  privileged 
classes  in  particular  is  supported  by  the  state.  This,  of 
course,  does  not  refer  to  institutions  for  technical  or  profes- 


Instruments  of  Progress  m  the  Schoolroom       251 

sional  education.  These  forms  of  education  are  offered  quite 
generally  in  state  schools. 

Historical  Development  of  Courses  of  Study,  From  our 
earliest  historical  knowledge  of  educational  processes  and 
schools  we  find  that  the  matter  of  the  course  of  study  was 
quite  definitely  outlined  and  followed,  whether  the  system 
was  under  the  control  of  the  church  and  ecclesiastical  institu- 
tions or  under  the  control  of  the  state  and  the  dominant 
political  institutions.  The  age  periods  for  primary  educa- 
tion varied  in  different  countries  from  five  to  eight  years, 
but  began  in  most  countries  at  from  six  to  seven.  Interme- 
diate education  extended  from  the  twelfth  or  fourteenth  to 
the  eighteenth  or  twentieth  year,  while  the  "  higher  educa- 
tion "  began  at  about  the  age  of  twenty  and  on  even  as  far 
as  up  to  the  thirty-fifth  year.  Courses  of  study  in  these 
three  educational  groups  have  been  decidedly  uniform. 
China,  India,  Judea  and  Egypt  all  had  as  the  course  of  study 
in  their  primary  educational  work,  reading,  writing  and 
arithmetic.  Persia  paid  but  little  attention  to  any  of  these 
except  among  the  leisure  class.  To  these  three  subjects 
training  in  ceremonial  institutions  (of  the  priesthood)  and 
moral  customs,  Judea  increased  her  course  of  study  to  include 
music  (both  vocal  and  instrumental)  and  added  thereto  ele- 
mentary work  in  the  industrial  and  mechanical  arts. 

The  intermediate  and  advanced  courses  of  study  have  re- 
mained very  uniform  and  everywhere  covered  the  entire  field 
of  knowledge,  though  only  in  the  past  century  or  so,  because 
the  activity  to  obtain  a  living  took  all  of  the  time  of  men, 
did  intermediate  and  higher  education  become  accessible  to 
others  than  the  socially  privileged,  the  ruling  classes  and 
those  select  few  who  enjoyed  special  political,  professional, 
and  ecclesiastical  opportunities  and  maintained  themselves 
in  it  by  rigid  caste  rulings  and  regulations  and  a  strong 
spirit  of  clannishness.  Sparta's  literary  education  was  but 
little  other  than  primary,  her  state  ideal  being  to  make  war- 
riors out  of  her  citizens.  Pythagoras,  a  prominent  exponent 
of  the  Spartan  ideal  in  his  school,  offered  in  the  primary 
course  of  study,  reading  and  writing,  to  which,  a  little  later 
in  that  course,  were  added  arithmetic.     Still  later  appeared 


252  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

grammar,  literature,  geography  and  music,  finally  astron- 
omy and  mathematics  being  brought  in.  Aristotle  advanced 
this  course  of  study  to  include  poetry,  rhetoric,  drawing  and 
philosophy,  with  all  of  its  known  branches.  In  the  Christian 
period  immediately  following,  the  training  in  the  elementary 
branches  included  reading,  writing  and  sometimes  arithmetic, 
but  still  in  the  primary  grade  Latin  and  Greek  were  added, 
the  full  course  including  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  gram- 
mar, music,  rhetoric,  mathematics  and  philosophy. 

Luther  found  out  that  the  chief  obstruction  to  the  success- 
ful propagation  of  his  ideas  was  general  ignorance  among 
the  masses  of  the  people.  To  overcome  this  he  put  forth 
the  proposition  that  the  state  had  the  right  to  enforce  com- 
pulsory education.  Finding  that  the  course  of  study  then 
in  use  in  the  school  was  not  of  the  kind  to  make  the  spread  of 
his  views  and  the  influence  of  his  work  sufficiently  efficient  he 
proposed  a  new  course  of  study  which  he  himself  had  devised 
as  a  substitute  for  the  prosaic  one  inherited  from  the  classi- 
cal times.  It  was  composed  of  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
mathematics,  bible,  catechism,  Latin,  Greek,  logic,  rhetoric, 
history,  natural  science,  music  and  gymnastics.  In  this 
course  of  study  as  proposed  by  Luther  and  introduced  by  him 
we  notice  several  signs  of  the  times  and  some  advancement  of 
human  knowledge.  The  presence  of  "  Bible  study "  and 
"  Catechism  study  "  is  to  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  Eu- 
rope and  especially  Germany  was  in  the  throes  of  a  fearful 
struggle  for  religious  freedom.  Natural  science  which  we 
know  now  under  the  name  of  "  nature  study  "  was  present  in 
the  course  probably  because  of  the  new  spirit  for  scientific 
methods  and  investigation  that  constituted  a  reaction  against 
the  atrophied  and  unproductive  forms  of  studies  at  the  head 
of  which  reactionary  movement  stood  such  men  as  Bacon. 
Music  was  there  probably  through  its  relation  to  the  religious 
feeling  and  worship  as  it  was  in  the  Judean  course  of  study, 
while  the  presence  of  gymnastics  is  probably  a  relic  of  the 
Spartan  system  and  the  practical  need  that  was  felt  in  the 
terrible  degradation  which  the  body  had  undergone  by  the 
asceticism  of  the  church,  which  taught  that  the  body  pol- 
luted the  spirit  and  construed  religion  to  be  bodily  chastise- 


Instruments  of  Progress  in  the  Schoolroom        253 

ment,  privation  and  abnegation.  History  which  had  been 
notable  for  its  absence  from  the  previous  lower  courses  was 
introduced  by  Luther  to  aid  in  his  fight  within  the  church 
and  as  first  taught  was  almost  entirely  church  history. 
Throughout,  however,  the  course  is  markedly  advanced.  In 
the  primary  grades  besides  instruction  in  religion  and  morals 
there  were  taught  music,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  bible, 
catechism,  natural  science  and  gymnastics.  Latin  was  be- 
gun in  the  second  year  and  Greek  in  the  third  year  of  the 
primary  grade.  This  was  quite  a  formidable  course  of  study, 
especially  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  method  of  learning 
them  was  by  rote.  Under  such  a  regime  the  work  must  have 
been  straining  despite  the  presence  of  gymnastics  to  break  the 
long  tedious  strain. 

About  this  same  time  (1550)  Sturm  became  head  of  the 
Gymnasium  at  Strassburg  and  introduced  a  course  of  study 
there  that  became  a  model  for  all  of  the  more  important 
schools  of  Europe  for  the  next  two  hundred  and  fifty  years 
and  which  is  to-day  still  followed  by  many  countries,  par- 
ticularly Germany,  in  their  upper  primary  and  throughout 
the  secondary  schools.  His  course  of  study  was  a  Latin 
course  of  study.  That  is,  Latin  was  made  the  basic  subject 
with  the  right  to  alternate  with  it  or  substitute  Greek  for  it  in 
the  higher  grades.  It  ignored  the  mother  tongue  almost  en- 
tirety, not  only  not  teaching  it,  but  also  not  allowing  its  use 
except  in  the  explanation  required  by  the  difficulties  of  the 
text.  Pupils  were  not  even  allowed  to  converse  in  the  mother 
tongue  on  the  way  to  and  from  the  school.  The  first  year 
course  with  Sturm  consisted  in  the  learning  of  the  alphabet, 
reading  and  writing,  and  the  learning  of  Latin  declensions 
and  conjugations  with  instruction  in  either  the  German 
or  Latin  catechism.  All  of  the  succeeding  years  of  the 
course  were  marked  only  by  an  advance  in  the  Latin  in- 
struction. 

The  English  poet  John  Milton  made  the  first  decided  step 
toward  nationalism  in  courses  of  study.  His  efforts  were 
bent  toward  the  adoption  of  courses  of  study  to  the  capacities 
of  the  pupils ;  an  evident  reaction  against  the  course  of 
study  of  Sturm.     He  decried  strongly  the  method  then  in 


254»  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

vogue  of  compelling  students  "  to  spend  seven  or  eight  years 
merely  in  scraping  together  so  much  miserable  Latin  and 
Greek  as  might  be  learned  otherwise  later,  easily  and  delight- 
fully in  one  year."  He  considered  it  a  great  fault  of  the 
system  "  to  require  verses  and  orations  of  immature  stu- 
dents and  to  introduce  them  suddenly  to  the  abstractions  of 
logic  and  metaphysics." 

Following  Milton,  Herbart  made  another  determined  effort 
to  place  the  then  used  course  of  study  on  a  rational  basis. 
His  labors  were  spent  in  an  effort  to  determine  the  order  of 
subjects  by  their  "  progressive  and  logical  connection,"  to 
arrange  the  course  of  study  to  correspond  to  the  progressive 
unfolding  of  the  mind.  Let  the  subjects  of  the  course  grow 
in  complexity  as  the  child's  mind  grows  in  power  to  compre- 
hend, and  education  will  be  easy,  because  natural,  was  his 
argument.  He  based  his  system  upon  mathematics  for  which 
course  he  provided  a  lengthy  philosophical  exposition  by  way 
of  justification  of  it.  Both  Herbart  and  Herbert  Spencer 
were  markedly  influenced  in  their  writings  by  the  reaction 
against  the  prosaic  and  theoretical  education  of  the  schools 
of  their  time  which  were  run  chiefly  under  the  dominance  of 
religious  bodies  and  their  religious  zeal,  which  during  those 
times  were  the  paramount  feelings  controlling  human  action. 
Too,  they  were  both  materially  influenced  by  the  reactionary 
methods  of  the  French  Renaissance  whose  school  principles 
were  widely  heralded.  Spencer's  efforts  were  bent  in  the 
direction  both  of  the  order  of  arrangement  of  subjects,  their 
prominence  in  the  course  and  the  amount  of  time  they  should 
receive  in  the  schoolroom.  Spencer  would  determine  his 
course  of  study  upon  the  relative  value  of  studies  in  the  living 
activities  of  a  people  and  used  as  his  basic  principle  that  of 
"  what  knowledge  is  of  most  worth."  This  in  turn  was  deter- 
mined by  one's  standard  of  living.  While  this  proposition 
of  Spencer's  was  perhaps  indefinite  it  was  undoubtedly  in- 
tended to  break  up  the  petrified  customs  of  making  courses  of 
study  according  to  the  theories  of  a  dead  past  and  was  in- 
tended to  make  the  new  courses  of  study  thoroughly  practical 
and  utilitarian.  Since  the  school  cannot  teach  all  branches 
of  knowledge  and  since  no  one  person  can  learn  all  that  the 


Instruments  of  Progress  m  the  Schoolroom       255 

school  teaches  it  is  imperative  to  know  what  is  the  relative 
value  of  the  various  branches  of  knowledge  which  the  school 
attempts  to  teach.  Spencer  outlines  the  kinds  of  activities 
in  life  for  which  the  school  is  supposed  to  prepare  one  on  the 
basis  of  their  contribution  to  the  self  maintenance  of  that 
individual.  With  this  as  a  guide  he  formed  his  course  of 
study.  On  a  similar  plane  with  Herbart  he  held  that  the 
course  of  study  should  correspond  with  the  unfolding  of  the 
mind.  The  course  of  study  according  to  him  should  proceed 
"  from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  from  the  concrete  to  the  ab- 
stract, from  the  empirical  to  the  philosophical."  It  should 
carry  the  child  in  education  through  the  same  periods  as 
those  through  which  the  race  passed  in  its  historical  develop- 
ment. That  is,  the  course  of  study  should  first  of  all  be  com- 
posed of  those  subjects,  a  knowledge  of  which  will  enable  him 
properly  to  meet  directly  the  problems  of  self-preservation. 
Next  it  should  contain  those  subjects  a  knowledge  of  which 
will  enable  him  (the  pupil)  properly  to  meet  those  problems 
which  affect  his  access  to  the  necessities  of  life  and  that  there- 
fore indirectly  affect  self-preservation.  These  subjects  must 
be  imbodied  in  all  courses  of  study  and  these  courses  of  study 
should  be  placed  within  the  reach  of  all,  because  to  all  living 
beings  are  due  the  opportunities  for  obtaining  (earning)  a 
livelihood.  When  these  problems  are  successfully  met  in 
society  by  its  various  individual  members,  then  the  courses  of 
study  may  be  extended  to  include  those  subjects  which  pro- 
vide a  knowledge  for  the  rearing  and  disciplining  of  offspring. 
This  accomplished  the  course  of  study  may  include  those  sub- 
jects which  provide  knowledge  that  will  enable  the  mainte- 
nance of  proper  knowledge,  that  will  enable  the  maintenance 
of  proper  social  and  political  relations  of  the  state.  Finally, 
according  to  this  scheme  of  Spencer's  the  course  of  study 
may  include  those  subjects  which  enable  the  exercise  of 
the  finer  miscellaneous  activities  which  make  up  the  leisure 
part  of  life,  that  part  which  is  generally  devoted  to  the  grat- 
ification of  the  tastes  and  feelings,  especially  the  feelings  of 
the  esthetic  sense.  As  the  child  becomes  secure  in  the  posses- 
sion of  a  knowledge  of  these  various  activities,  he  can  advance 
in  the  courses  of  study  until  he  has  access  to  all  that  the 


256  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

school  offers.  Courses  of  study  which  administer  to  the 
means  of  self  preservation  both  directly  and  indirectly  are 
first  and  generally  provided.  Other  more  extended  courses 
later  as  the  demands  on  the  child  rise  beyond  this  level. 

Unlike  Herbart,  Spencer  makes  science  the  basis  of  his 
course  of  study.  To  him  the  study  of  science  was  the  road 
to  human  happiness;  it  ministers  successfully  to  all  human 
ills.  Latin  and  Greek  with  him  fall  from  their  high  position 
of  honor  and  prominence  in  school  courses  of  study  on  which 
they  had  been  for  so  long  a  time  enthroned,  as  do  bible  study 
and  the  study  of  the  catechism.  The  humanities  also  lose 
their  position  of  eminence.  The  old  course  of  study  was 
outlined  for  the  rich  and  leisure  class ;  it  was  impractical  and 
non-utilitarian.  In  their  stead  Spencer  would  substitute  a 
course  of  study  admirably  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the 
masses.  For  this  purpose  he  offered  a  course  that  was 
practical  and  highly  utilitarian.  The  cultivation  of  the 
esthetic  tastes  and  feelings  is  a  privilege  accorded  only  the 
rich  and  leisure  class.  But  inasmuch  as  the  leisure  class 
does  not  constitute  the  main  body  upon  which  civilization 
rests,  so  ought  not  the  education  which  is  only  for  them 
make  up  the  chief  part  of  the  current  course  of  study.  In 
this  connection  Spencer's  stress  upon  physical  education  is 
also  worthy  of  notice.  He  sounds  a  timely  note  of  warning 
in  this  regard  which  has  been  and  is  being  well  heeded  in 
our  more  modern  courses  of  study. 

To-day  the  courses  of  study  in  Germany  as  prescribed 
for  the  primary  grades  of  the  public  schools  intended  for 
the  use  of  the  whole  population  (I  refer  here  to  the  so-called 
"  Volkschulen ")  consists  of  instruction  in  the  catechism 
and  bible  history  (chiefly  anecdotes  and  biographies),  read- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  natural  history,  singing 
and  gymnastics.  The  lower  primary  grades  offer  as  their 
course  of  study:  Catechism  and  bible  history,  reading, 
writing  and  arithmetic  (numbers),  natural  history  (nature 
study),  singing  and  gymnastics.  The  courses  of  study  in 
France  for  the  primary  grades  call  for  instruction  in  moral 
and  civic  duties,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  grammar,  lit- 
erature,   history,    geography,    natural    science,    designing, 


Instruments  of  Progress  in  the  Schoolroom        257 

modeling,  music,  gymnastics,  military  for  the  boys  and 
needle  work  for  the  girls. 

From  these  facts,  not  only  is  it  evident  that  the  problem 
of  courses  of  study  is  an  old  one,  and  that  the  present  one 
has  been  reached  after  long  years  of  experience  and  experi- 
mentation. But  it  is  also  clear  that  the  courses  of  study 
are  pretty  uniform  throughout  all  of  the  enlightened  and 
advanced  civilized  countries.  It  is  also  a  fact  that  they  are 
instruments  of  such  importance  in  the  outcome  of  educational 
processes,  that  they  cannot  be  safely  entrusted  to  the  whims 
of  either  ignorant  or  capricious  persons  or  those  given  too 
much  to  fads  in  matters  of  education.  After  such  a  long 
period  of  trial  it  is  safe  to  conclude  in  this  matter  of  courses 
of  study  that  each  subject  of  the  course  has  come  to  have  its 
position  in  the  course  because  of  some  specific  demand  in 
the  life  of  the  child  which  it  is  to  supply  and,  because  of 
this,  that  it  cannot  be  dispensed  with  without  impairing  the 
child  as  a  finished  educational  product.  With  the  general 
purpose  of  education  clearly  defined  and  the  kind  of  educa- 
tion that  is  most  worth,  the  relative  value  of  the  subjects  is 
readily  found  and  where  there  must  be  a  process  of  elimina- 
tion invoked,  the  local  or  practical  grounds  may  without 
serious  harm  enter  and  be  plied  as  a  shearer's  blade  to  cut 
out  those  of  less  practical  value.  The  question  of  self- 
preservation  and  self-maintenance  must  and  will  always  be 
paramount  until  the  race  advances  to  the  point  where  there 
is  abundant  material  goods  well  distributed  throughout  the 
masses.  During  this  time  the  local  and  national  ideals  and 
needs  will  control  the  nature  of  the  courses  of  study.  Once 
the  questions  of  self-preservation  and  self-maintenance  are 
removed  from  the  immediate  consideration  then  the  courses 
of  study  may  flower  out  into  such  forms  as  will  cater  most 
fully  to  the  higher  and  more  nearly  theoretical  ideals  of  the 
more  capricious  and  fastidious  rich  and  leisure  class. 

Courses  of  Study  in  America.  America  has  not  advanced 
in  these  matters  perhaps  quite  as  far  as  the  countries  of 
Europe,  though  since  she  has  started  along  this  line  she  has 
proceeded  more  rapidly  than  they  have.  Fifty  years  ago 
our  courses  of  study  consisted  in  the  rural  districts  chiefly 


258  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

of  reading,  writing  and  arithmetic  with  some  language  (gram- 
mar) work  and  some  geography  (more  nature  study).  The 
freedom  of  activity  which  is  part  of  our  national  ideals  has 
allowed  those  in  authority  to  proceed  according  to  their  own 
wishes  and  as  a  result  the  courses  of  study  as  they  have 
grown  have  become  overcrowded  with  many  unrelated  sub- 
jects arranged  in  no  definite  order.  The  result  is  that  in 
such  cases  the  knowledge  gotten,  if  such  it  may  be  called  is 
disconnected  and  of  little  worth,  the  energy  of  the  pupil 
being  uselessly  dissipated  by  being  stretched  over  too  large 
an  area  of  subjects  and  subject  matter.  While  it  is  true 
that  the  tendency  in  America  is  toward  intension  in  educa- 
tional processes,  more  than  toward  extension  in  them,  which 
may  be  partly  the  cause  of  the  status  of  things  educational 
with  us  so  far  as  courses  of  study  are  concerned,  yet  it  is 
a  fact  that  studies  need  to  be  more  concentrated.  Where, 
because  certain  groups  of  subjects  extend  in  parallel  lines, 
concentration  is  impossible,  the  condition  might  be  remedied 
to  some  extent  at  least  by  an  appropriate  combination  of 
coordination  and  correlation.  Herbart  and  Spencer,  espe- 
cially the  former,  both  advocated  courses  of  study  based 
upon  the  principle  of  concentration  aided  by  correlation  and 
coordination.  The  earlier  courses  of  study,  as  may  have 
been  observed,  were  based  purely  on  the  principle  of  corre- 
lation and  coordination.  The  humanities  (history,  litera- 
ture, etc.),  the  sciences  both  physical  and  biological  (includ- 
ing the  physiological)  and  the  mathematical  subjects  con- 
stitute the  correlated  courses  of  study  generally  offered 
coordinately.  These  are  usually  everywhere  introduced  by 
the  less  coordinated  and  correlated  subjects  known  as  formal 
subjects,  of  which  the  chief  are  reading,  writing,  arithmetic 
(number  work),  nature  study,  grammar  (language  work), 
drawing  and  modeling.  Primary  knowledge,  therefore,  is 
formal  knowledge  and  is  necessary  before  any  other  form  of 
knowledge  is  possible.  A  primary  course  of  study  because 
it  is  basic  and  primary  is  now  and  has  always  been  practically 
the  same  in  all  countries.  It  is  in  the  upper  primary,  inter- 
mediate, grammar  and  high  school  courses  of  study  that  this 
problem  peculiar  to  America  presents  itself.     Besides  being 


Instruments  of  Progress  in  the  Schoolroom       259 

reduced  to  a  system  of  concentration,  correlation  and  co- 
ordination the  lower  subjects  should  follow  the  ps3rcho- 
logical  order  (the  Herbartian  and  Spencerian  doctrine) 
while  the  higher  subjects  should  follow  the  logical  order. 
In  the  advanced  graded  work  of  the  city  schools  the  course 
of  study  is  at  its  best  and  as  such  is  on  an  average  equal 
to  that  of  the  most  advanced  cities  of  the  advanced  countries 
of  Europe.  In  the  rural  districts,  however,  our  courses  of 
study  are  behind  those  of  the  schools  of  such  countries  as 
are  included  in  the  preceding  reference.  However,  lack  of 
uniformity  in  courses  of  study  is  in  a  way  evident  everywhere 
both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe.  In  the  French  system 
of  schools  the  courses  of  study  are  perhaps  the  best  and  most 
uniform  known.  These  courses  of  study  are  strictly  pre- 
scribed by  the  ministers  of  public  instruction  and  rigid  ad- 
herence to  them  is  enforced  by  the  department  throughout 
the  state  by  means  of  a  very  extensive  system  of  deputies. 

Experience  has  fully  taught  the  need  of  having  courses  of 
stud}r  articulate  well  by  grades  and  years.  With  this  con- 
dition and  those  above  fulfilled  the  teacher  is  relieved  of 
much  responsibility  in  things  that  while  they  are  vital,  they 
are  cut  and  dried  for  him.  All  that  is  required  of  him  is 
that  he  bend  his  energies  in  teaching  the  course  of  study  that 
is  outlined  for  him.  A  prepared  course  of  study  will  insure 
in  the  first  place  that  the  end  of  education  as  broadened  by 
the  experience  of  centuries  will  be  achieved  with  some  degree 
of  definiteness  and  certainly  that  the  work  through  the 
progressive  steps  will  be  harmonious  and  the  efforts  spent  not 
lost  by  useless  repetition,  nor  its  effects  spoiled  by  discon- 
nection. It  will  provide  that  the  work  undertaken  will  pro- 
ceed in  harmony  with  the  natural  unfolding  of  the  mind  and 
be  so  uniform  as  to  reduce  the  inconvenience  and  loss  of 
time  incidental  to  the  transfer  from  locality  to  locality  and 
state  to  state  to  a  minimum. 

II.  The  Daily  Program.  The  next  instrument  of  progress 
in  the  schoolroom  that  is  of  vital  concern  for  the  teacher 
is  the  daily  program.  Unlike  the  question  of  the  course 
of  study  it  is  not  so  definitely  determined  by  custom  nor  are 
the  scientific   regulations   governing  it   as  minute   as   those 


5260  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

controlling  the  course  of  study.  In  its  variation  it  is  sus- 
ceptible to  local  conditions,  due  in  part  to  the  nature  of  the 
program  itself  and  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  teacher  is 
not  onty  allowed  to  make  out  his  own  daily  program  to  suit 
his  own  convenience  and  the  accommodations  of  his  own 
room,  but  in  most  cases  is  required  to  do  so.  In  this,  one 
of  the  chief  problems  of  the  schoolroom  is  that  of  time. 
Everything  must  de  done,  done  well  and  done  in  the  least 
possible  time  that  the  results  will  justify.  In  other  words 
the  daily  program  aims  to  secure  a  maximum  amount  of 
school  work  with  a  minimum  expenditure  of  energy  and  time. 
The  amount  of  time  available  for  the  schoolroom  processes 
is  determined  first  of  all  by  the  length  of  the  school  term, 
while  the  length  of  the  school  year  is  determined  in  turn  in 
most  cases  by  legislative  enactment.  These  aim,  however, 
only  at  general  restrictions  and  regulations  within  which 
limitations  the  local  boards  and  county  superintendents  make 
rules  to  suit  the  immediate  conditions  of  the  schools  and 
the  various  means  on  hand  to  maintain  them. 

In  the  Northeast,  West,  and  the  better  schools  of  the  South 
the  school  year  ranges  in  length  from  thirty  to  forty  weeks 
with  a  standing  average  between  thirty-five  and  thirty-six 
weeks.  In  the  rural  sections  of  the  North,  East,  West  and 
especially  of  the  South  the  year  is  generally  shorter.  In 
many  of  the  counties  and  districts  of  the  southern  states, 
the  school  year  either  by  lack  of  funds,  or  because  of  the 
rules  and  regulations  of  local  authorities  or  both,  is  often 
restricted  to  as  short  a  time  as  three  calender  months. 
Where  not  bound  by  other  restrictions,  the  question  of  funds 
for  longer  maintenance  of  the  school  year  is  generally  locally 
met  by  the  patrons  and  the  school  year  extended  in  this  way. 
In  some  sections  mostly  agricultural,  for  the  sake  of  making 
and  harvesting  the  crops  the  school  year  already  short  is 
cut  into  two  sections,  one  during  the  cold  months  between 
harvest  time  and  the  time  of  sowing,  when  agricultural  pur- 
suits are  impossible,  and  the  other  in  the  hot  months  of 
the  summer  when  the  crops  are  planted  and  "  laid  by  "  and 
the  laborers  resting,  waiting  for  the  crops  "  to  make." 
Both  of  these  conditions  materially  affect  the  work  of  the 


Instruments  of  Progress  in  the  Schoolroom       &61 

school  and  react  upon  the  school  course  as  well  as  upon  the 
daily  program  affecting  both  materially  for  the  worse. 

While  the  tendency  in  America  is  toward  a  longer  school 
year  and  there  is  constant  agitation  leading  to  improvement 
in  this  line,  the  school  year  in  America  as  it  is  in  practice 
in  our  larger  cities  of  the  North  and  limited  to  few  vacations 
is  far  in  advance  of  that  of  the  most  advanced  countries  of 
Europe  such  as  Germany,  France  and  England. 

The  School  Day.  While  the  course  of  study  is  more 
directly  affected  by  the  length  of  the  school  year  than  the 
daily  program,  the  daily  program  is  determined  chiefly  by 
the  course  of  study  both  as  to  the  number  of  subjects  which 
can  be  taught  in  the  course  of  study,  the  order  in  which 
those  subjects  shall  come  in  the  school  day  and  the  amount 
of  time  which  shall  be  given  to  each.  It  is  customary  in 
America  to  divide  the  school  day  in  the  public  schools  into 
two  sessions,  the  one,  the  morning  session  runs  from  nine 
o'clock  in  the  morning  until  twelve  o'clock  noon,  and  the 
other,  the  afternoon  session  running  from  two  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon  until  four.  In  some  of  the  rural  schools  the 
other  inconveniences  of  the  school  are  offset  by  extending 
the  afternoon  session  from  one  o'clock  until  four.  In  many 
city  high  schools  the  session  runs  from  nine  o'clock  in  the 
morning  to  two  or  two-thirty  with  an  intermission  at  the 
noon  hour  of  from  twenty  minutes  to  a  half  hour.  Many 
of  the  schools  of  the  larger  cities  such  as  Baltimore,  Phila- 
delphia and  Washington  hold  what  is  known  as  half-day 
sessions  running  from  nine  to  twelve  in  the  morning.  At 
noon  the  pupils  of  the  morning  session  are  dismissed  and  a 
new  set  of  pupils  come  to  the  afternoon  session  which  begins 
at  one  o'clock  and  continues  until  four  o'clock.  In  many 
colleges  and  universities  the  school  work  begins  as  early  as 
eight  o'clock  or  even  seven  o'clock  and  extends  continuously 
throughout  the  day  until  five  or  even  six  o'clock  in  the 
evening,  while  a  few  cases  are  on  record  where  recitations 
in  them  run  until  seven,  eight,  or  even  nine  o'clock.  In 
European  countries  the  school  day  as  a  whole  is  generally 
longer  than  in  America.  In  Germany  for  example  a  full 
day  in  the  public  schools  is  usually  seven  hours  long,  while 


%62  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

in  France  it  is  sometimes  seven  hours  long  but  more  generally 
only  six  hours  as  in  America.  In  England  it  sometimes  is 
seven  hours  and  in  some  sections  six  hours  long.  Both  in 
Europe  and  America  for  various  reasons  justified  by  the 
nature  of  the  case,  first  and  second  year  primary  pupils 
are  generally  dismissed  from  one-half  hour  to  one  hour 
earlier  than  the  pupils  of  the  higher  grades,  both  in  the 
morning  and  in  the  afternoon  sessions,  also  giving  to  them 
longer  and  sometimes  more  frequent  recess  periods  than  are 
given  to  the  higher  grades  thus  cutting  their  day  to  five 
or  even  four  full  hours  in  a  school  day.  This  early  dis- 
missal is  justified  first  by  the  fact  that  the  younger  children 
suffer  more  mentally  under  confinement  and  restraint  than 
the  older  ones  and  need  for  health,  more  oj)portunity  for 
exercise  in  the  open  air  to  promote  healthy  and  vigorous 
growth  so  necessary  for  the  future  well-being  of  the  child 
physically,  mentally  and  morally.  The  work  of  the  pri- 
mary grades  is  also  light  and  of  small  amount  and  there 
is  not  such  a  noticeable  demand  in  them  for  time.  With 
the  higher  grades  where  there  is  such  an  extended  course 
of  study  that  the  time  devoted  to  each  subject  must  be  care- 
fully determined  beforehand  and  strictly  adhered  to  during 
the  day  in  order  that  all  of  the  work  of  the  day  may  be 
properly  done  with  neglect  of  none  of  it,  the  economic  use  of 
time  is  imperative.  Here  school  must  be  held  to  the  last 
minute  and  recesses,  intermissions  and  other  exercises  of  a 
general  nature  must  be  reduced  to  extend  over  a  minimum 
amount  of  time. 

Recess  in  the  morning  is  generally  fifteen  minutes  for  the 
higher  classes  and  that  in  the  afternoon  is  ten  minutes. 
Oftentimes  that  of  the  lower  classes  is  longer  and  they 
sometimes  have  more  recess  periods  than  are  given  to  the 
upper  grades.  In  the  upper  grades  the  sixth,  seventh  and 
eighth  the  great  demand  for  time  has  often  made  those 
who  feel  only  the  pressure  brought  to  bear  upon  them  to  get 
over  a  certain  amount  of  work  satisfactorily,  advocate  the 
removal  of  the  afternoon  recess  entirely  and  the  reduction  of 
the  morning  recess  to  ten  minutes.  In  many  schools  this 
is  done.     But  the   reactionary  pedagogy   with  physiology 


Instruments  of  Progress  in  the  Schoolroom        263 

and  hygiene  at  its  back  is  agitating  not  only  for  the  longer 
recess  in  the  morning  and  the  restoration  of  the  afternoon 
recess,  but  is  proposing  a  rational  method  which  would  have 
the  teacher  study  the  needs  of  the  pupil  and  give  him  the 
right  to  take  whatever  steps  he  finds  necessary  to  revive  and 
reinvigorate  the  school  so  as  to  bring  the  work  up  to  a 
proper  standard  of  efficiency  and  bring  about  a  true  economy 
of  time.  Sometimes  the  situation  may  require  only  a  few 
gymnastics  in  the  midst  of  plenty  of  fresh  air.  Then  again 
it  may  require  a  brief  recess  period.  It  is  a  fact  that  when 
there  is  too  much  lethargy  present  in  the  body  of  students 
it  is  better  to  remove  this  lethargy  at  any  cost  in  loss  of 
time,  rather  than  to  hold  school  and  drag  on  through  the 
day's  work.  Such  work  would  in  results  obtained  be 
practically  wasted.  While  the  freedom  to  so  control  a  situa- 
tion arising  in  the  school  work  may  at  times  be  abused  and 
the  purpose  of  the  school  to  that  extent  be  defeated,  it  still 
remains  fundamentally  true  that  the  teacher  should  be  given 
the  right  under  individual  discretion  to  so  regulate  the  ac- 
tivities of  the  pupils  as  to  keep  the  work  of  the  school  at  all 
times  up  to  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  and  the  children  al- 
ways active  and  vigorous.  This  is  the  paramount  purpose 
of  recesses  and  intermissions.  Sometimes  this  may  be  ac- 
complished by  the  arrangement  of  subjects  throughout  the 
day.  But  the  results  from  this  are  minor  in  their  effects. 
Instead  of  recesses  those  who  see  the  loss  of  time  in  dismissal 
and  reopening  during  recesses  and  who  wish  to  avoid  the 
efforts  necessary  to  get  the  students  in  order  and  back  to 
work  after  recess  advocate  substituting  gymnastic  exer- 
cises in  the  schoolroom  with  a  full  circulation  of  air  as  a 
substitute  for  recesses.  It  is  true  that  in  this  way  the  order 
of  the  school  is  disturbed  to  a  minimum  degree  and  the  loss 
of  time  is  reduced  to  its  lowest,  but  the  real  proposition,  the 
health  of  the  child  is  not  considered.  This  question  of  sub- 
stituting constantly  indoor  gymnastics  for  play  in  the  open 
air  at  first  bid  fair  to  solve  many  difficult  problems  attached 
to  the  question  of  recesses.  But  tests  have  soon  shown  that 
the  substitute  was  a  poor  one  as  far  as  the  vital  functions 
of  the  body  and  the  health  of  the  pupil  were  concerned.     It 


264  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

was  soon  evident  that  these  received  a  benefit  in  the  free 
and  full  bodily  exercise  in  the  open  on  the  playgroud  which 
no  amount  of  indoor  exercise  could  replace  and  leave  the 
health  of  the  pupil  unimpaired.  The  real  fact  is,  the  ex- 
periments showed  that  gymnastics  far  from  being  recupera- 
tive in  the  same  sense  that  play  in  the  open  air  is,  are  a  strain 
upon  the  child  second  only  in  waste  to  that  entailed  by 
such  a  heavy  subject  as  mathematics,  which  is  one  of  the 
subjects  of  greatest  strain  on  the  vital  energies  of  the 
child. 

The  Course  of  Study  and  the  Daily  Program.  While,  as 
was  shown  above,  the  course  of  study  is  fixed  along  pretty 
definite  lines,  it  was  also  seen  that  it  is  sufficiently  elastic 
to  be  slightly  varied  to  meet  any  urgent  local  demands  in 
minor  subjects.  These  minor  subjects  may  be  limited  be- 
cause of  the  school  }7ear,  because  of  its  being  broken  into  a 
winter  and  a  summer  session,  because  the  school  day  is  short, 
because  recesses,  intermissions  or  general  (opening)  ex- 
ercises reduce  the  amount  of  time  available  for  the  purpose 
of  actual  teaching.  Minor  subjects  may  be  dispensed  with 
easily  according  to  the  Spencerian  doctrine  of  the  relative 
value  of  subjects  as  determined  by  the  national  and  local 
ideals  of  education  and  the  social  element  which  the  school 
is  immediately  to  serve.  In  manufacturing,  agricultural  and 
mining  districts,  as  well  as  in  other  sections  adapted  to  en- 
gage in  plying  certain  other  forms  of  activities,  the  courses 
of  study  should  be  sufficiently  elastic  to  allow  of  minor 
changes  to  meet  the  local  demands  arising  from  its  immediate 
economic  or  social  conditions.  For  example,  music  might 
not  be  as  essential  in  the  course  of  study  for  rural  com- 
munities as  nature  study  and  agriculture,  while  in  a  mining 
district  the  demand  might  turn  to  drawing,  modeling  and 
clay  working,  or  in  a  manufacturing  district  again  basic  work 
in  the  physical  sciences,  physics  and  chemistry  might  be  re- 
quired even  in  the  lowest  grades.  Whereupon,  upon  the  basis 
of  relative  value  of  subjects  if  it  became  necessary  to  cut  or 
keep  down  the  course  of  study  the  local  demand  along  specific 
lines  could  be  used  as  a  basis.  In  larger  cities  where  there 
is  more  wealth  and  a  larger  leisure  class  and  consequently 


Instruments  of  Progress  m  the  Schoolroom        £65 

more  education  for  culture,  all  subjects  could  be  retained, 
the  school  year  being  continuous  and  of  maximum  length. 

Form  and  Content  Subjects.  From  the  viewpoint  of  the 
relative  value  of  subjects  they  are  divided  into  two  groups, 
form  subjects  and  content  subjects.  The  form  subjects 
are  such  subjects  as  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  drawing, 
music,  spelling,  language,  etc.  The  content  subjects  are  such 
subjects  as  geography,  nature  study,  science,  agriculture, 
civics,  history  and  literature.  The  form  subjects  one  will 
readily  see  are  more  important  in  the  lower  grades  and 
grow  less  in  importance  as  we  ascend  the  scale  of  the  grades. 
A  scientific  course  of  study  will  show  this,  and  the  daily 
program  will  give  prominence  to  the  subjects  on  the  same 
basis.  In  the  tendency  to  overcrowd  the  courses  of  study 
of  the  American  public  schools  alluded  to  above,  there  is  a 
disposition  to  crowd  those  years  that  experience  has  shown 
should  be  given  over  to  the  study  of  form  subjects  with  con- 
tent subjects,  thus  neglecting  the  form  subjects.  But  what- 
ever justification  such  steps  should  receive  on  theoretical 
grounds,  experience  shows  that  content  subjects  can  only 
be  put  into  the  earlier  years  of  schoolwork  at  the  expense 
of  the  form  subjects.  Form  subjects  are  drill  subjects,  sub- 
jects for  the  gaining  of  the  rudiments  and  the  establishing 
of  paths  of  motor  discharge  along  various  nerve  tracts,  for 
the  formation  of  accurate  and  definite  habits  in  education, 
the  gaining  of  complete  muscular  coordination  in  physical 
processes  and  full  control  in  mental  processes.  Besides,  the 
mental  energy  of  children  is  very  limited  comparatively 
speaking.  Hence  to  dissipate  their  energies  between  form 
subjects  and  content  subjects  is  to  make  the  work  in  both 
ineffective  if  not  really  null  and  void. 

Fatigue  Agents.  Given,  then,  the  relative  importance  of 
form  subjects  and  content  subjects  in  the  various  educa- 
tional periods  the  daily  program  should  cater  to  each  in 
the  different  age  periods  as  represented  by  the  grades,  and 
subjects  should  be  sacrificed  on  the  basis  of  their  relation 
to  the  form  series  and  the  content  series.  But  this  is  not 
the  only  problem  to  be  considered  in  the  arrangement  of  a 
daily  program.     The  next  matter  of  importance  is  the  ques- 


266  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

tion  of  the  demand  of  the  various  subjects  of  the  course 
of  study  upon  the  energies  of  the  child,  and  the  various 
amounts  of  child  energy  available  during  the  daily  school 
sessions  for  school  work.  Passing  at  this  time  the  general 
effects  of  the  school  surroundings,  the  decorations  of  the 
room,  its  heating,  lighting  and  ventilation  and  the  general 
manner  of  the  teacher  upon  the  energies  of  the  child,  we 
come  to  those  activities  of  the  child  immediately  connected 
with  the  educational  processes  of  the  schoolroom  in  their 
relation  to  the  energies  of  the  child  and  their  demands  upon 
that  energy.  Careful  study  of  the  fatigue  curve  (better 
called  the  energy  curve)  of  the  child  shows  that  it  rises  and 
falls  throughout  the  day  under  normal  conditions  with 
rhythmic  precision.  There  is  a  double  loop  of  rhythm  to  the 
curve.  It  rises  steadily  in  the  morning  from  the  opening  of 
school  until  between  nine  and  ten,  generally  between  9 :30 
and  9:45.  It  reaches  its  maximum  height  for  the  morning 
round  about  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning  session.  It  falls 
rapidly  until  the  recess  period  about  ten-thirty  in  the  morn- 
ing. After  the  recess  due  to  the  invigoration  received  at 
that  time  in  play  in  the  open  it  rises  more  slowly  and  not  as 
high  as  in  the  morning  period  before  recess,  reaching  its 
maximum  between  eleven  o'clock  and  eleven-fifteen,  after 
which  there  is  rapid  fall  until  the  noon  intermission  gives 
another  longer  period  for  rest  and  recuperation,  and  a 
recharging  of  the  energy  cells.  In  the  afternoon  session  the 
energy  curve  rises  as  in  the  morning,  reaches  its  full  height 
more  rapidly  than  in  the  morning  and  declines  more  rapidly 
generally  sinking  below  the  lowest  level  of  the  morning  ses- 
sion. There  is  a  break  in  the  fall  of  the  afternoon  curve 
where  there  is  an  afternoon  recess  or  the  gymnastic  exercises, 
though  less  pronounced,  where  the  gymnastics  are  substituted 
for  the  open  air  play,  when  the  curve  rises  again  to  a  max- 
imum quickly  and  slowly  falls  until  the  close  of  school. 

The  graphing  of  this  curve  shows  some  interesting  facts. 
Neither  in  the  morning  session  nor  in  the  afternoon  session, 
at  the  opening  of  the  session,  nor  immediately  after  the  re- 
cesses or  gymnastic  exercises  is  the  rise  of  the  curve  great- 
est, but  only  after  the  muscles  become  well  charged  with  it 


Instruments  of  Progress  in  the  Schoolroom       267 

does  the  curve  reach  its  maximum.  The  point  of  maximum 
height  after  each  opportunity  for  recharging  the  cells  is 
given,  is  not  reached  for  some  time  after  the  discharge  of 
the  energy  lias  commenced.  In  the  morning  when  the  supply 
of  energy  available  is  greatest  the  current  of  discharge  is 
longest  in  reaching  its  maximum  strength  as  the  curve  shows 
by  attaining  at  that  time  its  greatest  height.  There  is  a 
like  fact  evident  in  the  afternoon  session  and  after  both  the 
recess  or  recesses  of  the  morning  and  afternoon  sessions. 
What  is  more  to  be  expected  the  curve  is  lowest  at  the  close 
of  school  in  the  afternoon,  and  that  as  the  cells  discharge 
and  the  energy  is  used  up,  the  process  of  discharge  is  gradu- 
a\\y  retarded  as  the  energy  curve  shows  by  its  gradual  fall 
during  the  morning  and  afternoon  but  especially  in  that 
period  of  the  afternoon  session  between  recess  and  the  close 
of  school. 

The  Relative  Fatigue  Value  of  Form  Subjects  and  Con- 
tent Subjects.  In  this  same  connection  it  is  perhaps  un- 
expected but  a  fact  that  the  primary  subjects  of  the  school 
course,  the  so-called  form  subjects  are  more  taxing  upon 
child  energy  than  the  higher  subjects,  the  so-called  content 
subjects.  The  reason  for  this  probably  lies  in  the  fact  that 
most  of  the  form  subjects  involve  the  putting  forth  of  con- 
siderable ph}*sical  effort,  sometimes  in  cases  where  muscular 
coordination  and  nerve  control  is  poor  they  involve  the 
putting  forth  of  intense  physical  effort.  This  is  seen  in 
such  instances  where  primary  children  write  and  draw  with 
the  whole  body.  In  some  rare  and  extreme  cases  the  whole 
body  of  such  pupils  becomes  rigid,  the  muscles  contracted, 
mouth  twisted,  lips  puckered  and  eyes  squinted.  That  any 
exercise  that  thus  draws  energy  from  all  muscles  of  the  body 
and  so  intensely  too  will  soon  use  up  the  store  of  energy 
in  the  energy-cells  goes  almost  without  saying.  The  same 
is  true  oftentimes  in  the  cases  of  early  vocalization  and 
singing.  Experiments  along  this  line  by  investigators  have 
proven  that  as  energy  users  mathematics  stand  at  the  head 
of  the  list  of  subjects  in  the  course  of  study,  closely  followed 
by  writing,  drawing,  spelling,  reading  and  gymnastics. 
Where  the  objects  dealt  with  in  drawing  are  colored,  tests 


268  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

have  shown  that  they  produce  less  discharge  from  the  energy- 
cells.  Music,  too,  where  it  is  singing  of  words  especially  if 
the  tune  is  lively  or  the  words  cheery  and  not  a  mere  drill  in 
technical  forms  is  less  taxing,  while  nature  study  and 
geography  are  well  toward  the  bottom  of  the  list.  Foreign 
languages  probably  because  of  their  empty  form  and  con- 
sequent lack  of  interest  and  extra  demand  for  the  exercise 
of  will  power  stand  at  the  bottom  of  the  group.  These  facts 
all  tend  to  show  that  the  interest  that  one  has  in  a  subject 
has  much  to  do  with  stimulating  the  energy  cells  to  discharge 
their  content,  thereby  making  available  for  the  work  a  greater 
amount  of  energy.  It  also  shows  that  subjects  that  are  not 
interesting  create  the  greatest  demand  on  the  energy  of  the 
child.  Hence  these  should  not  be  forced  upon  the  child  mind 
for  too  long  a  period  at  a  time,  and  hence  in  subjects  in  which 
there  is  special  natural  interest  due  to  local  or  personal 
conditions,  more  can  be  done  with  less  cost  of  energy  than 
in  these  subjects  in  which  there  is  not  this  natural  interest. 
All  of  these  facts  about  the  cost  of  energy  in  performing 
the  various  duties  of  the  schoolroom  and  the  status  of  the 
bodily  energy  during  different  periods  of  the  daily  session 
will  determine  materially  the  arrangement  of  the  subjects  for 
recitation  and  the  amount  of  time  that  each  should  have. 

The  Arrangement  of  Subjects.  These  facts  while  vital 
are  merely  incidental  to  the  general  points  that  are  of  in- 
terest here  in  connection  with  the  making  of  the  daily  pro- 
gram. From  the  facts  given  above  it  is  obvious  that  the 
best  results  will  follow  if  we  do  not  have  two  form  subjects, 
especially  if  the  time  allotted  to  them  be  long,  follow  each 
other  in  succession  in  the  program;  if  form  subjects  they 
would  have  shorter  periods  than  content  subjects.  It  is 
also  clear  that  two  short  periods  in  different  subjects  will  be 
less  fatiguing  than  one  long  one  in  the  same  subject,  other 
things  related  thereto  being  equal;  that  form  subjects  should 
be  given,  in  the  degree  of  their  demand  for  energy,  at  those 
periods  in  the  day  when  the  energy  curve  is  highest,  accord- 
ing to  their  demand  as  energy  users  ;  that  drill  subjects  should 
be  of  short  duration  and  well  dispersed  throughout  the  daily 
program  because  of  their  power  to  increase  the  energy  dis- 


Instruments  of  Progress  in  the  Schoolroom        £69 

charge;  that  the  program  for  each  session  should  open  with 
light  fatigue  subjects  in  order  to  allow  the  process  of  energy 
discharge  to  get  well  under  way,  when  those  subjects  which 
require  more  energy  may  follow  at  a  time  when  the  discharge 
of  energy  is  sufficient  to  enable  the  pupil  to  handle  them 
without  undue  fatigue.  Speaking  of  the  subjects  in  the 
course  as  heavy  and  light  in  a  classification  based  on  the 
amount  of  energy  they  use  in  preparation  and  recitation, 
the  heavy  subjects  should  be  interspersed  with  the  light  ones 
and  come  preferably  in  the  morning,  while  in  these  the  light 
ones  should  appear  in  the  program  at  the  opening  of  the 
session,  just  after  recess  periods,  and  toward  the  close  of 
the  morning  and  afternoon  sessions.  The  heavy  subjects 
should  appear  more  toward  the  middle  of  the  time  between 
the  opening  and  recess  and  recess  and  noon  in  the  morning 
session  and  at  a  like  time  in  the  afternoon  session.  In  the 
case  of  two  exercises  involving  mechanical  movements  such 
as  drawing,  writing,  singing  and  oral  concerted  class  recita- 
tions there  should  be  inserted  between  them  in  the  program 
some  other  subject  to  break  and  relieve  the  strain.  It  is  also 
better  that  they  not  follow  any  form  of  special  physical  ex- 
ercise, recess  or  intermission.  Length  of  periods  too  should 
vary  according  to  the  "  weight  "  of  the  subject,  and  this 
time  should  be  short  in  the  lower  grades  and  lengthened 
gradually  as  the  course  ascends  in  the  grades.  Chadwick 
whose  suggestions  for  recitation  periods  are  the  standard 
in  America  proposes  in  this  instance  that  the  pupils  from 
5  to  7  be  given  recitation  of  fifteen  minutes ;  7  to  10  twenty 
minutes;  10  to  12,  twenty-five  minutes;  12  to  16,  thirty 
minutes.  This  is  on  the  assumption  that  the  time  is  avail- 
able. It  is  believed  also  in  the  light  of  what  has  preceded 
that  form  subjects  might  in  each  of  these  cases  where  fatigue, 
the  course  of  study,  or  daily  program  demands  it,  be  al- 
lotted less  time  than  the  general  scheme  calls  for.  In  high 
schools  it  is  customary  to  give  classes  from  40  to  45  minutes. 
In  colleges  and  universities  the  literary  classes  generally 
receive  sixty  minutes,  rarely  120  minutes,  while  laboratory 
subjects  extend  over  160,  180  or  even  to  240  minutes  (4 
hours). 


270  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

Daily  Program  in  Ungraded  Schools.  In  the  ungraded 
schools  of  the  rural  districts,  the  graded  schools  of  the  con- 
gested city  districts  and  those  cities  where  only  one  session 
is  held  the  problem  of  time  is  a  serious  one  which  must  be 
solved  as  best  the  conditions  will  allow.  Though  for  smaller 
children  home  study  is  condemned  for  physiological  and 
pedagogical  reasons  the  first  move  made  to  economize  time 
is  to  do  away  as  far  as  possible  with  the  school  study  period 
and  use  the  time  thus  gained  for  recitations.  Another 
method  employed  to  satisfy  imperative  demands  for  time 
is  to  alternate  subjects.  Still  another  is  to  estimate  the 
relative  value  of  the  various  subjects  and  cut  down  the  reci- 
tation periods  allotted  them  in  the  week's  program,  thus 
creating  time  for  the  other  subjects.  A  method  of  last  re- 
sort is  to  remove  subjects  from  the  daily  routine  entirely  and 
give  general  instruction  in  them  during  the  opening  or  gen- 
eral exercises  when  all  of  the  pupils  are  present.  Of  all  of 
these,  alternation  or  the  reduction  of  the  number  of  recita- 
tions in  a  given  subject  per  week  is  the  least  objectionable. 
For  this  purpose  of  alternation  such  subjects  as  drawing 
and  modeling,  writing  and  music,  nature  study  and  geography 
may  be  used  without  great  loss  to  the  pupil,  inconvenience 
to  the  teacher  or  disruption  of  the  program.  Morals  and 
manners  where  not  taught  in  the  general  or  opening  exer- 
cises may  be  alternated  with  a  gymnastic  or  recreation 
period.  Where  there  are  two  or  more  classes  in  a  room 
some  of  the  subjects  such  as  spelling  and  writing  and  even 
drawing  might  be  doubled  up  without  serious  loss  or  incon- 
venience. 

This  statement  while  based  on  acknowledged  principles  is 
only  suggestive.  The  teacher  will  in  most  cases  be  com- 
pelled to  depend  on  individual  resources  to  master  the  situa- 
tion, and  much  that  could  not  be  mentioned  or  even  with 
safety  be  advised  may  sometimes  have  to  be  done.  All  that 
can  be  said  is  that  as  much  of  the  standard  systems  and 
approved  principles  as  is  possible  should  be  used  in  making 
out  a  daily  program.  Once  one  has  been  made  out  it  should 
be  strictly  adhered  to  until  conditions  make  it  impossible 
to  follow  it.     Whereupon  a  new  one  which  can  be  followed 


Instruments  of  Progress  in  the  Schoolroom        271 

should  replace  the  old  one.  Daily  programs  facilitate  the 
school  work,  make  it  definite,  enable  it  to  proceed  without 
break  and  consequent  loss  of  time,  destroys  all  dangers  of 
yielding  to  hobbies  and  favorite  subjects  and  insures  uni- 
form and  general  education.  It  compels  to  a  great  extent 
the  preparation  of  the  work  of  the  school  for  the  next  day 
at  home  and  rounds  out  all  of  the  work  of  the  school  proc- 
esses into  systematic  whole. 

No  examples  of  a  daily  program  are  given  here,  because 
these  vary  so  in  every  locality  and  condition  that  no  great 
uniformity  exists.  Nor  can  they  exist.  Furthermore  it  is 
assumed  that  with  a  careful  understanding  of  the  principles 
given  here  and  with  the  course  of  stud}'  for  the  graces  in  hand 
any  teacher  can  provide  himself  with  a  daily  program  to 
meet  the  particular  demands  of  his  school. 

REFERENCE  READING 

King's  "Education  for  Social  Efficiency."     Chap.  XI. 
De  Garmo's  "  Interest  and  Education."     Chap.  V. 

Miinsterberg's  "  Psychology  and  the  Teacher."     Chaps.  XXV,  XXVI. 
Jones'  "Teaching  Children  to  Study."     Chap.  V. 
Colgrove's  "  The  Teacher  and  the  School."     Chaps.  X,  XI,  XII. 
De  Garmo's  "  Principles  of  Secondary  Education."     Chaps.  I,  V. 
Johonnot's  "  Principles  and  Practice  of  Teaching."     Chaps.  Ill,  IV,  V, 
VI,  XIV. 


CHAPTER  XII 
ACCESSORIES  OF  THE  RECITATION 

Their  Value.  No  matter  connected  with  the  school  and  its 
processes  is  as  important  as  the  work  of  the  recitation.  All 
of  the  functions  of  the  school  are  secondary  and  accessory 
to  it.  It  is  the  crowning  glory,  the  climax  of  the  educa- 
tive process  toward  which  all  other  activities  tend.  What- 
ever successes  attend  other  phases  of  the  schoolwork,  how- 
ever well  directed  efforts  may  be  along  other  lines,  if  in  the 
recitation  there  is  lack  of  method,  lack  of  system,  lack  of 
success,  all  else  is  practically  in  vain.  Out  of  the  recitation 
come  the  facts  that  make  up  chiefly  the  early  store  of  knowl- 
edge with  which  the  young  enter  upon  life,  out  of  the  recita- 
tion come  the  order  and  association  of  facts  that  establish 
their  relative  values  and  give  to  them  practical  utility,  out 
of  the  recitation  comes  that  power  of  discrimination  and 
skill  in  the  use  of  the  facts  together  with  the  confidence  in 
one's  ability  to  use  them  in  harmony  with  the  world's  proc- 
esses, which  is  the  starting  point  of  all  of  those  forms  of 
self-activity  that  lead  to  persistent  endeavor  and  ultimately 
to  achievement.  Thus  the  theory  and  practice  of  education 
is  justified  by  basic  philosophy  and  evidences  of  a  keen  and 
thorough  understanding  of  general  principles,  when  it  makes 
the  recitation  fundamental  in  all  educational  forms  and  edu- 
cative processes. 

The  Preparation  of  the  Teacher.  Special  preparation 
is  necessary  for  the  proper  performances  of  any  and  every 
kind  of  special  work.  The  more  highly  professional  and 
special  the  work  the  greater  is  the  need  for  special  prepara- 
tion. In  every  field  of  human  endeavor  this  is  either  tacitly 
assumed  or  overtly  admitted.  And  yet,  despite  this  fact, 
in  the  teaching  profession  more  than  in  any  other,  the  novice 
and  unprepared  is  inducted  into  places  of  authority,  respon- 

272 


Accessories  of  the  Recitation  £73 

sibility  and  direction.  That  the  profession  loses  in  standing 
and  achievement  as  a  result  of  such  conditions  must  ob- 
viously be  true.  This  loss  in  standing  and  achievement  is 
felt  by  the  profession  in  the  withdrawal  of  public  confidence 
and  the  continued  low  salary  which  the  members  of  the  pro- 
fession everywhere  receive.  However,  the  recent  agitation 
for  better  prepared  teachers  is  reaping  good  fruit  and  is  re- 
sulting gradually  in  the  elevation  of  the  rating  of  the  teacher 
both  in  the  community  and  throughout  the  state.  It  is  also 
resulting  in  increasing  the  amounts  available  for  salaries. 
The  assessment  of  school  taxes  is  increasing  everywhere  as 
are  the  number  of  sources  from  which  school  funds  may  be 
derived.  Correspondingly,  if  the  possession  of  higher  grade 
certificates  is  to  be  taken  as  evidence  the  teachers  everywhere 
are  better  prepared.  In  the  twelve  Southern  States  the  per- 
centage of  teachers  having  first  grade  certificates  has  in- 
creased thirty-two  percent  during  the  past  decade,  those 
holding  second  grade  certificates  have  increased  nineteen  per- 
cent, while  those  teachers  holding  third  grade  have  decreased 
eleven  percent.  In  many  Northern  States  where  the  stand- 
ing of  the  teachers  as  evidenced  by  the  grade  of  certificate 
they  held  was  already  high,  there  is  a  corresponding  improve- 
ment in  intellectual  qualifications. 

Heart  Training.  Apart  from  this,  generally  speaking, 
the  kind  of  preparation  necessary  for  the  teacher  is  of  a  two- 
fold nature.  Teachers  need  preparation  of  intellect  and 
of  feeling,  that  is,  preparation  of  mind  and  of  heart,  if  we 
may  use  language  current  in  professional  literature.  Fur- 
thermore, the  teacher  needs  the  very  highest  preparation  ob- 
tainable in  each  of  these.  It  is  ordinarily  proposed  both 
in  theory  and  practice  that  the  amount  of  intellectual  prep- 
aration necessary  for  the  teacher  in  the  lower  grades  is  small 
and  that  this  demand  increases  in  amount  as  the  teaching 
ascends  to  the  higher  grade  of  pupils.  From  the  viewpoint 
that  the  teacher  must  always  keep  a  certain  distance  mentally 
ahead  of  the  pupils  in  order  to  hold  their  respect,  and  blaze 
a  path  through  the  field  of  knowledge  which  the  student  may 
follow  without  fear  or  equivocation,  and  that  it  will  make 
the  teacher  a  mysterious  savant  with  powers  in  awe  of  which 


274  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

the  pupils  must  stand,  this  view  is  probably  correct.  But 
if  we  take  the  viewpoint  that  the  earlier  steps  in  the  educa- 
tional processes,  being  fundamental  and  the  foundation  upon 
which  the  superstructure  of  education  is  to  be  built,  then 
they  are  paramount  and  consequently  the  sine  qua  non  (the 
indispensable  thing)  of  education.  Add  to  this  the  fact  that 
the  mind  and  body  of  the  young  child  is  a  tender  plant  sus- 
ceptible to  the  influence  of  every  force  acting  upon  it  and 
whose  effects  run  through  a  long  period  of  the  child's  activity 
and  perhaps  throughout  his  whole  life,  determining  his  abili- 
ties and  capacities  for  organic  activity  and  his  share  of  hu- 
man joys,  then,  we  can  see  that  it  must  require  for  the  best 
good  of  the  child  even  better  preparation  both  in  heart  and 
mind  for  those  teachers  who  are  expected  to  supervise  and 
direct  the  elementary  educational  processes  of  the  child. 
That  teacher  needs  the  aid  of  the  entire  available  field  of 
human  knowledge,  if  he  would  even  hope  for  success.  The 
complacent  satisfaction  of  the  young  teacher  as  he  enters 
upon  his  new  duties  of  teaching  the  young  "  shoots  to  shoot  " 
entirely  unconscious  of  the  difficulty  that  lies  before  him  or 
the  responsibilities  that  devolve  upon  his  shoulders  in  this 
new  capacity  is  a  magnificent  example  of  blissful  ignorance. 
For  the  mere  dealing  out  of  facts  of  knowledge  or  the  direct- 
ing of  the  muscular  movements  of  the  elementary  school  ex- 
ercises, it  requires  but  little  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher,  we  must  admit.  But  if  the  giving  out  of  these  facts 
and  the  directing  of  these  movements  are  to  be  done  with 
due  regard  to  the  physical,  mental  and  moral  best  good  of 
the  child,  it  must  be  clear  to  all  that  the  knowledge  of  even 
the  most  learned  is  not  always  sufficient  to  guarantee  that 
they  will  be  done  in  accord  with  the  demands  of  nature,  the 
state  and  society,  and  resultingly  in  accord  with  the  demands 
of  the  best  good  of  the  child. 

It  is  an  ancient  maxim  gleaned  from  the  richness  of  the 
experience  of  the  centuries  of  experience  through  which  so- 
ciety has  passed  which  says  "  practice  makes  perfect."  But 
nowhere  is  the  truth  of  this  saying  more  evident  than  in  the 
processes  of  the  schoolroom.  Everywhere  and  in  every  field 
of  labor  there  are  things  necessary  for  efficiency  in  work  that 


Accessories  of  the  Recitation  875 

can  be  learned  only  in  practice.  In  school  teaching  it  is 
only  by  meeting  and  solving  the  daily  problems  as  they  arise 
that  the  teacher  becomes  strong.  Too  often,  teachers  use 
the  profession  as  a  stepping  stone  to  another  profession. 
Individuals  enter  this  profession  and  little  suspecting  the 
intricacies  attached  to  it  in  operation  fail  or  because  of 
the  unsuspected  side  to  it,  discovered  by  close  contact  with  it, 
form  a  dislike  for  it  and  leave  it  for  another  profession. 
Others  enter  it  deliberately  to  earn  money  to  enter  into  other 
fields  of  activity  or  professions  and  at  the  intended  times 
other  things  being  favorable  leave  it  for  their  chosen  pur- 
pose. No  profession  suffers  from  this  practice  as  does  the 
teaching  profession.  The  problem  is  partly  created  by  wo- 
men who  enter  the  profession  to  earn  a  living  until  a  fitting 
chance  for  marriage  offers  itself  when  they  resign  mostly 
at  times  to  suit  their  own  convenience  leaving  the  school  and 
the  authorities  to  suffer  and  work  off  the  difficulties  thus 
created  as  best  they  can.  This  has  become  a  serious  matter 
with  school  authorities.  Some  have  been  forced  by  way  of 
protection  to  make  rather  stringent  regulations  regarding 
the  practice.  In  many  cities  as  a  result  of  this  practice 
being  carried  to  excess  school  boards  have  passed  measures 
compelling  teachers  when  elected  to  sign  a  contract  and 
agree  to  fulfill  the  terms  of  the  contract  during  the  whole 
of  that  school  year.  In  many  cities  also  this  has  been  a 
potent  factor  in  admitting  married  women  into  the  eligibility 
list  of  teachers  thus  crowding  out  the  girls  for  whom  some- 
times strong  pleas  are  made.  The  harm  done  by  this  practice 
of  young  unmarried  women  during  a  school  year  to  the 
school,  is  often  irremediable  at  least  during  that  particular 
year,  for  the  available  material  in  mid-year  is  often  poor. 
The  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  schoolwork  done 
by  the  teacher  who  has  resigned  and  the  demand  for  a  new 
learning  of  the  pupils  and  the  work  so  hinder  the  progress 
of  the  work  where  such  a  resignation  and  election  have  taken 
place  that  the  work  of  that  whole  year  is  practically  wasted, 
much  to  the  loss  and  sometimes  serious  handicap  of  the  child. 
Let  this  be  repeated  often  in  the  course  of  a  child's  grade 
work  and  his  education  in  the  fundamentals  of  education 


276  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

will  be  to  all  intents  and  purposes  ruined,  especially  inas- 
much as  a  bad  foundation  in  education  will  mean  a  bad  edu- 
cational superstructure.  Some  of  our  most  brilliant  char- 
acters and  greatest  statesmen  have  boasted  of  the  fact  that 
they  have  made  use  of  the  small  salaries  and  abundant  op- 
portunity for  experience  of  the  lowly  schoolroom  as  a  step- 
ping stone  to  the  larger  and  more  remunerative  fields  of 
labor  and  professions.  This  may  be  a  credit  to  the  men 
who  boast  of  it,  but  the  school  certainly  has  paid  dearly 
for  this  service  it  has  rendered  the  nation  in  this  capacity, 
many  a  child's  future  being  blighted  thereby.  The  states- 
man and  professional  man  have  reaped  the  reward,  but  the 
school  and  the  school-child  have  paid  the  price.  Again, 
unlike  the  lawyer  and  the  doctor,  the  school  teacher  is  gen- 
erally not  a  finished  product  educationally.  The  teaching 
profession  is  composed  to  a  great  extent  of  individuals  who 
have  dropped  off  from  school  all  along  the  line  for  various 
reasons.  Some  of  them  intended  at  the  start  only  to  go  so 
far  in  school,  then  to  begin  teaching.  The  opportunity  for 
this  not  presenting  itself  at  the  expected  time,  they  have 
continued  in  school  until  the  opportunity  did  present  itself, 
when  they  quit  school  and  began  to  teach.  Still  others  quit 
school  under  various  forms  of  pressure  and  drift  into  teaching 
as  a  possible  means  of  earning  a  living,  only  later  under  the 
lack  of  renewed  ambition  to  turn  off  into  some  other  pro- 
fession as  a  matter  of  choice  from  particular  fitness,  for 
pecuniary  or  other  reasons  more  often  personal  than  other- 
wise. 

Another  fruitful  source  of  injury  to  the  cause  of  the  pub- 
lic school  and  education  in  general,  is  the  disposition  of 
those  in  authority  to  gratify  their  desire  for  personal  power 
by  catering  to  those  who  worship  them  by  fawning  or  truck- 
ling, or  who  use  the  schoolroom  as  a  means  of  "  dispensing 
public  patronage."  Besides  condemning  vehemently  such 
practices  for  their  direct  evil  effect  upon  the  community  and 
the  school  and  in  some  forms  of  "  dragging  them  into  poli- 
tics "  no  honest  manly  aspiring  school  teacher  who  is  properly 
prepared  to  do  his  work  is  going  to  tolerate  such  treatment, 
or  risk  his  future  by  entering  upon  his  life's  work  on  a  basis 


Accessories  of  the  Recitation  877 

so  fickle  as  momentary  political  preferment.  Nothing  too 
severe  can  be  said  of  such  a  practice  and  any  community  in 
which  such  a  method  of  administering  the  school  exists, 
should  rise  up  in  its  strength  and  break  up  such  a  system  at 
once  at  whatever  cost  in  money,  time  and  labor.  Politics 
and  good  schools  are  as  fundamentally  antithetical  as  are 
oil  and  water.  The  same  is  true  of  "  favoritism  "  in  select- 
ing teachers  and  good  schools..  You  may  lash  oil  and  water 
into  a  mulch  wherein  they  may  appear  to  have  become  mixed, 
but  the  moment  the  energetic  process  is  over,  each  returns  to 
its  own  and  the  mixture  is  no  more.  Whereupon  all  of  the 
myriad  evils  of  lack  of  cooperation  and  inefficiency  wax  and 
grow  strong  to  the  destruction  of  all  possibilities  for  good 
in  the  system.  Herein  lies  the  danger  from  politics  and 
favoritism  in  school  affairs.  When  they  come  into  school 
administration  competency  and  fitness  depart  leaving  the 
school  in  the  possession  of  incompetency  and  its  accompany- 
ing train  of  evils. 

Professional  Training.  Apart  from  the  general  educa- 
tional qualifications  given  above  as  a  requisite  for  a  teacher 
and  those  general  personal  qualifications  mentioned  else- 
where, such  as  enthusiasm,  kindness,  sympathy,  esteem,  love? 
tact,  in  dealing  with  pupils  and  mastery  of  subjects  taught, 
for  a  teacher  to  be  really  proficient  in  his  work  he  should 
also  be  well  trained  in  the  professional  side  of  his  work.  For 
this  latter  purpose  a  working  knowledge  of  history  of  edu- 
cation, where  the  nature  of  the  problem  of  education  as  con- 
ceived by  the  world  behind  us  is  shown  and  the  views  and 
methods  used  by  the  men  of  such  times  in  all  of  the  coun- 
tries of  civilization  in  solving  the  problem  is  stated  connect- 
edly; of  psychology,  where  the  method  of  operation  of  the 
mind  and  its  nature,  growth  and  development,  together  with 
the  relation  of  the  chief  faculties  for  effective  schoolroom 
work  are  shown ;  of  pedagogy,  where  the  method  of  prepar- 
ing the  material  to  be  taught  and  the  best  methods  of  pre- 
senting them  to  the  pupils,  the  methods  of  maintaining  proper 
discipline  and  control  and  of  inflicting  punishment  during 
the  work,  of  applying  the  rules  of  method  to  those  of  matter 
in  order  to  effectively  reach  and  impress  mind.     Besides  these 


278  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

special  phases  books  abound  which  amplify  under  the  various 
heads  of  special  treatment  the  particular  parts  of  the  more 
general  subject  of  education.  We  have  for  example  many 
books  on  punishments  in  school,  school  discipline,  school 
management,  general  and  special  methods  of  the  recitation 
and  the  philosophy  of  education.  In  addition  to  these  there 
is  also  an  abundance  of  current  professional  literature  to 
which  every  teacher  has  access  and  of  which  he  should  gladly 
make  constant  and  fitting  avail.  In  order  to  increase  the 
professional  training  of  the  teacher  local  teachers'  meetings 
are  held  generally  bi-weekly  or  monthly  where  persons  com- 
petent to  instruct  are  in  charge,  county  institutes  and  state 
associations  where  under  competent  instruction  by  associa- 
tion and  communication  one  with  another,  teachers  may 
gain  better  and  more  practical  knowledge  as  to  expedients 
in  schoolroom  work  and  discipline.  Besides  these,  much  is 
being  offered  to  teachers  now  in  the  form  of  summer  normals, 
and  summer  schools,  attendance  upon  which  by  the  coopera- 
tion of  the  various  local  authorities  is  being  made  compulsory 
to  an  ever  increasing  extent.  Further  opportunity  of  per- 
sonal advancement  both  along  professional  and  general  edu- 
cational lines  is  offered  by  correspondence  schools,  for  the 
efficiency  of  whose  training  one  cannot  always  vouch  but 
which  are  springing  up  everywhere.  To  these  have  been 
added  still  more  recently  university  extension  courses,  read- 
ing circles  (organized  oftentimes  under  the  advice  if  not  di- 
rectly under  the  direction  and  supervision  of  the  superin- 
tendents), and  many  other  forms  of  gatherings,  where  litera- 
ture upon  school  matters  is  read  and  discussed,  lectures  upon 
special  problems  given  and  a  general  interest  in  matters 
pedagogical  is  aroused  and  fostered,  of  practice  where  under 
model  conditions  and  an  experienced  eye  the  prospective 
teacher  may  get  some  experience.  None  of  these  methods, 
however,  surpass  in  results  the  simple  and  perhaps  somewhat 
antiquated  method  of  home  study.  In  the  quiet  of  his  own 
chamber  the  enthusiastic,  energetic,  wide-awake  teacher  may 
gain  as  much  of  practical  value  as  through  many  of  the  other 
methods  of  gaining  knowledge  and  acquiring  professional 
fitness  mentioned  here,  combined.     In  regard  to  the  demand 


Accessories  of  the  Recitation  879 

for  preparation  of  the  teacher  for  his  work  Socrates,  who 
in  the  work  of  pedagogy  has  rank  second  to  none,  said  "  what 
a  man  proposes  to  do  that  he  should  learn  well  before  the 
doing  is  attempted."  D.  P.  Page  said  in  the  same  connec- 
tion "  Going  to  the  class  so  full  of  the  subject,  that  were 
the  text-book  annihilated,  he  could  make  another  and  better 
one  —  he  will  have  no  difficulty  to  secure  attention."  J.  G. 
Fitch  writes  out  of  the  depth  of  his  experience  that  "  a  true 
teacher  never  thinks  his  education  complete  but  is  always 
seeking  to  add  to  his  own  knowledge.  The  moment  any  man 
ceases  to  be  a  systematic  student,  he  ceases  to  be  an  effective 
teacher."  Teaching  is  a  living  profession  and  no  teacher 
who  is  not  actively  alive  can  hope  to  keep  in  the  advance 
guard  of  teachers.  Not  only  must  he  be  fully  and  thor- 
oughly conversant  with  the  special  field  which  he  teaches  but 
he  must  be  acquainted  with  the  general  field  of  knowledge  and 
by  constant  study  keep  abreast  of  the  times  in  the  advance 
of  knowledge  and  the  introduction  of  new  methods.  Not  that 
he  must  be  always  in  search  for  the  "  fad  "  in  education  nor 
the  insecure  facts  of  the  speculator,  but  he  should  always 
keep  up  with  the  safe  advance  in  the  production  of  facts  and 
the  devising  of  methods.  This  represents  culture  and  sober 
training. 

Assigning  the  Lesson.  The  first  step  leading  up  to  the 
recitation  proper  is  the  assignment  of  the  lesson,  generally 
referred  to  merely  as  the  assignment.  This  is  a  very  im- 
portant preliminary,  for  upon  its  effectiveness  depends  to 
a  great  extent  the  results  obtained  in  the  recitation  itself. 
The  assignment  of  a  lesson  assumes,  to  begin  with,  that  the 
teacher  is  well  acquainted  with  the  needs  and  abilities  of  the 
pupils,  just  what  he  knows,  what  he  can  do,  how  much  he 
can  do  well,  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other,  what  diffi- 
culties the  lesson  itself  presents  that  the  pupil  has  not  at  his 
command  the  means  of  overcoming,  and  what  peculiarities 
in  statement,  thought  or  method  occur  in  it  that  might  mis- 
lead the  pupil  and  thereby  cause  misdirected  effort  and 
wasted  time,  which  have  as  their  ultimate  end  his  discourage- 
ment. Being  acquainted  with  all  of  this  it  also  assumes  that 
he  will  make  due  allowance  for  it  and  will  take  such  steps, 


280  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

in  the  explanation  of  the  assignment  as  will  be  in  his  judg- 
ment best  suited  to  remove  all  such  difficulties.  Assignment 
is  not  intended  to  make  the  lesson  so  easy  for  the  pupil 
that  it  will  seem  to  him  mere  child's  play  to  get  it,  all  human 
beings  enjoy  those  things  best  which  are  obtained  at  the 
greatest  sacrifice  in  time  and  effort.  Of  this  fact  the  pupil 
in  the  schoolroom  is  a  splendid  witness.  However,  it  would 
obviously  be  out  of  the  question  to  assign  a  lesson  and  ex- 
pect the  pupils  to  get  it,  when  it  presented  difficulties  that 
he  neither  knew  how  to  overcome,  or  knowing  this  had  not 
within  his  reach  the  means  of  overcoming  them.  After  hav- 
ing overcome  the  difficulties  of  the  lesson  itself  the  next  step 
in  the  assignment  is  to  show  the  value  of  the  lesson  in  the 
immediate  process  through  which  the  child  is  going  and  con- 
nect it  where  possible  to  his  past  activities,  inasmuch  as 
all  native  interests  are  strongest  and  lie  along  the  line  of 
the  things  that  are  directly  related  to  self  and  the  welfare 
of  self,  either  past,  present  or  future.  Once  this  has  been 
shown  him  you  have  struck  a  naturally  responsive  cord 
whereby  you  can  create  in  him  interest  in  and  desire  for 
the  subject  matter  of  the  lesson.  In  order  for  the  teacher 
to  be  able  fully  to  meet  the  aims  of  the  lesson  in  the  assign- 
ment, he  must  have  carefully  prepared  it  in  all  of  its  details, 
must  have  well  perceived  its  general  purpose  in  the  course, 
its  relation  to  the  other  subjects  in  the  course  both  those 
preceding  and  those  succeeding  it.  He  must  also  know 
well  the  facts  in  the  lesson,  their  relation  to  each  other,  to 
those  facts  which  have  preceded  in  former  lessons  and  those 
which  are  to  come  in  future  lessons.  Experience  has  taught 
that  where  natural  interests  are  wanting  the  natural  love 
of  the  young  for  stories  and  anecdotes  and  their  immediate 
response  to  them  with  the  keenest  interest,  may  be  used  as 
a  means  of  arousing  artificial  interests.  These  anecdotes 
and  stories  may  be  fittingly  connected  with  the  facts  of  the 
text  and  appropriate  queries  advanced  as  to  how  such  and 
such  facts  in  the  lesson  have  come  to  be,  what  becomes  of  the 
characters  in  the  next  lesson,  or  what  happened  in  the 
previous  lesson  or  lessons,  etc.  By  referring  the  pupils  to 
the  text  for  answers  to  such  queries  we  arouse  their  inter- 


Accessories  of  the  Recitation  £81 

est  and  send  them  in  a  state  of  expectant  attention  in  search 
of  explanations  to  the  queries  and  answers  to  the  questions, 
which,  whether  they  establish  a  personal  connection  with 
the  events  of  the  text  or  not,  are  bound  to  lead  them  deep 
into  the  text,  with  the  result  that  they  will  gain  a  full  knowl- 
edge of  its  contents,  their  relation  and  application. 

The  Length  of  Lessons  and  Child  Energy.  The  length  of 
lessons  assigned  should  bear  a  distinct  relation  to  the  age  of 
the  pupil,  the  time  that  he  has  to  spend  upon  it,  and  the 
amount  of  bodily  energy  that  he  may  use  for  getting  it, 
without  unduly  robbing  the  growing  body  of  such  amounts  of 
energy  as  are  required  for  healthy  activity  and  normal 
growth.  Where  there  is  departmental  work  teachers  in  their 
assignment  should  always  make  due  allowance  for  the  de- 
mands upon  the  pupils  from  other  teachers.  Children  as 
we  have  seen,  and  especially  the  }Tounger  ones  have  limited 
amounts  of  mental  energy,  and  though  under  the  strain  of 
powerful  stimuli  such  as  super-excitement,  of  love  and  fear, 
they  may  command  more  energy  for  use  in  getting  an  as- 
signment either  in  school  or  out,  it  is  better  not  to  tax 
these  energies  too  much.  Whenever  there  is  an  excessive  de- 
mand for  this  energy  in  mental  activity  the  bodily  organs 
suffer  from  the  loss  of  it  either  by  temporary  impairment  or 
permanent  injury,  such  as  atrophy  of  the  special  organs  or 
in  some  such  form  as  retardation  in  general  organic  de- 
velopment. Consequently  in  the  assignment  of  the  lesson 
it  is  necessary  that  it  be  not  too  long.  The  length  of  the 
lesson  therefore  will  be  determined  very  decidedly  by  such 
things  as  the  age  of  the  pupils  in  the  class,  the  advancement 
of  the  class  in  the  grades  and  in  the  particular  subject,  how 
long  they  have  been  studying  the  subject,  what  mastery  of  it 
they  have  already  attained,  what  special  fitness  they  may 
have  for  the  preparation  of  it  either  in  school  or  at  home, 
or  both,  whether  or  not  they  will  have  opportunity  for 
guidance  and  help  from  the  teacher  during  the  study  period, 
how  long  the  study  period  will  be  and  what  aids  such  as  ob- 
jects, maps,  designs,  drawings,  and  other  illustrative  material 
they  will  have  access  to  for  use  in  making  clear  the  facts  of 
the  lesson  and  driving  them  home  to  the  mind.     These  con- 


282  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

stitute  quite  a  large  number  of  details  to  be  kept  in  mind  in 
assigning  a  lesson,  but,  if  they  are  given  even  momentary 
consideration,  it  will  be  seen  that  they  are  highly  essential  to 
the  successful  achievement  of  the  real  end  of  the  assign- 
ment. Nothing  is  so  discouraging  to  the  young  mind  un- 
trained in  effective  willing  as  to  be  called  upon  to  perform  con- 
tinued labor,  to  put  forth  long  continued  effort,  and  to  be 
constantly  confronted  by  tasks  whose  length  and  difficulty 
make  it  impossible  for  him  to  successfully  perform  them. 
Lessons  should  be  reasonable  both  in  length  and  the  number 
and  kind  of  difficulties  which  they  present.  It  is  as  dis- 
couraging for  pupils  to  have  lessons  that  cannot  be  mastered 
because  unreasonably  difficult,  as  it  is  to  have  such  assigned 
as  are  unreasonably  long.  The  fact  is  that  the  short  diffi- 
cult lesson  if  not  capable  of  being  mastered  is  really  more 
discouraging  to  most  minds  than  a  long  lesson  that  is  "  un- 
gotten  "  merely  because  too  long.  The  one  situation  begets 
a  feeling  of  helplessness  entirely  wanting  in  the  other  where 
the  consciousness  exists  that  all  that  is  required  is  a  little 
more  time.  Though  as  far  as  knowledge  getting  and  educa- 
tion are  concerned  the  result  in  each  case  is  generally  the 
same,  namely  nil,  association  from  their  past  experiences 
both  in  the  mental  and  physical  world  has  led  most  pupils 
to  believe  that  short  lessons  and  easy  lessons  are  synony- 
mous and  that  likewise  long  ones  and  difficult  ones  are 
synonymous.  We  have  all  seen  the  effect  of  this  kind  of 
}7outhful  association,  and  witnessed  the  ineffectiveness  of  our 
efforts  to  prove  that  long  lessons  may  be  easy,  easier  even 
than  shorter  ones. 

Clarifying  the  Assignment.  Another  grave  problem  of  the 
assignment,  especially  if  it  is  to  be  effective  for  good,  is  to 
make  it  understood  by  all  of  the  class.  Many  a  teacher  has 
awakened,  after  lengthy  efforts  to  make  clear  in  the  assign- 
ment the  scope,  difficulty  and  method  of  attack  of  the  lesson, 
only  to  find  sometimes  that  much  of  the  class  has  failed  to 
grasp  the  real  and  practical  points  of  the  assignment.  The 
difficulty  here  is  mostly  one  of  attention  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils.  Pupils  have  their  attention  elsewhere  when  the  les- 
son is  being  assigned.     They  are  in  disorder.     Some  are  look- 


Accessories  of  the  Recitation  283 

ing  out  of  the  windows  or  elsewhere,  while  others  may  even 
be  looking  directly  at  the  teacher,  but  with  thoughts  miles 
away  and  never  hear  one  word  either  of  the  amount  of  the 
work  that  is  to  be  prepared  or  of  the  explanations  that  go 
to  make  up  the  preliminary  and  accessory  steps  of  the  as- 
signment properly  so-called.  This  latter  form  of  misun- 
derstanding is  a  problem  of  discipline  and  must  be  overcome, 
by  all  means. 

Another  form  of  misunderstanding  is  where  the  teacher 
in  making  the  assignment  uses  one  set  of  words  and  thinks 
she  is  using  another,  says  one  thing  and  thinks  she  is  saying 
another,  thereby  giving  the  students  the  wrong  idea  or  con- 
fusing them.  This  is  a  minor  fault,  however,  and  seldom 
happens,  requiring  only  a  little  care  on  the  part  of  the  pupil 
and  teacher  to  be  entirely  removed.  For  in  most  cases  such 
words  are  not  sufficiently  in  harmony  to  escape  detection,  nor 
is  the  sense  of  what  is  being  said  sufficiently  obscure  to  prevent 
the  proper  word  being  supplied  in  thought  thereby  enabling 
the  error  to  be  seen  and  corrected  at  once. 

Still  another  cause  of  misunderstanding  of  the  assign- 
ment which  applies  also  to  the  work  of  the  recitation  proper 
is  that  misunderstanding  which  arises  from  the  teacher's 
vocabulary  (use  of  words)  being  out  of  reach  of  the  pupils. 
This  is  commonly  called  talking  over  the  heads  of  the  pupils. 
To  assume  that  because  pupils  listen  attentively  and  ask  no 
questions  they  understand  all  that  is  said,  has  been  proved 
again  and  again  to  be  a  serious  mistake.  It  is  surprising 
sometimes  to  learn  what  crude  conceptions  they  form  of  what 
one  says  and  how  far  off  from  the  truth  their  conceptions  are. 
In  the  first  place  the  schoolroom  should  always  be  the  place 
for  very  simple  but  correct  English.  But  even  this  will  be 
no  guarantee  that  one  is  understood.  This  should  be  fol- 
lowed now  and  then  by  request  from  the  members  of  the  class 
for  the  meaning  of  a  particular  word,  phrase  or  sentence 
used  by  the  teacher  which  would  show  whether  or  not  the  pupil 
was  taking  in  what  was  said  and  connecting  it  properly  with 
the  other  facts  in  his  mind  related  to  the  facts  of  this  lesson. 

Nor  can  the  mere  statement  of  the  pupil  himself  that  he 
understands  what  is  being  said  be  taken  as  gospel  truth. 


884  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

For  oftentimes  he  honestly  thinks  he  both  understands  and 
is  making  proper  application  of  what  he  hears  or  sees  but 
in  each  is  mistaken.  The  safe  process  for  the  teacher  is  to 
verify  this  by  constant  interrogation  of  the  members  of  the 
class.  One's  vocabulary  is  made  up  of  the  words  that  he 
hears  and  reads  most.  This  is  a  potent  argument  against 
putting  the  young  minds  of  the  primary  grades  who  are  pos- 
sessed of  but  meager  vocabularies  consisting  mostly  of 
nursery  language  in  charge  of  highly  and  technically  trained 
minds.  The  language  of  such  teachers  is  mostly  out  of 
reach  of  these  little  minds.  For  they  live  and  move,  outside 
of  the  schoolroom,  at  least,  in  a  different  intellectual  atmos- 
phere from  that  of  their  pupils  and  in  one  where  all  they  read 
and  hear  is  in  this  technical  vocabulary.  This  technical 
vocabulary  is  often,  unconsciously  and  without  previous  in- 
tention to  acquire  it,  a  part  of  such  persons  and  flows  spon- 
taneously at  all  times,  especially  when  the  mind  is  directed 
intently  toward  the  thought  of  the  talk  without  regard  for 
the  language  in  which  the  thought  is  couched.  When  such 
teachers  talk  to  their  classes,  if  these  happen  to  be  young 
pupils,  there  is  constant  danger  of  their  snooting  over  the 
heads  of  their  pupils  the  bolts  of  knowledge  which  they  would 
much  prefer  should  have  penetrated  the  minds  of  the  pupils. 
Of  course,  with  due  practice  and  care  simple  words  can  al- 
ways be  used,  but  where  one  thinks  naturally  in  a  technical 
or  philosophical  vocabulary  it  is  difficult  to  use  an  untech- 
nical  or  an  unphilosophical  one  and  not  sacrifice  thereby  the 
thought  to  the  words.  It  is  the  same  as  when  one  speaks  in 
a  foreign  language,  having  previously  thought  in  the  mother 
tongue  and  then  translated  it  into  the  foreign  tongue. 

The  thoughts,  where  such  methods  are  necessary,  become 
dead,  prosaic  and  lose  their  power  to  charm  and  enthuse.  I 
speak  here  only  of  this  habit  as  innocently  acquired.  The 
other  where  big  words  are  purposely  sought  for  the  sake  of 
vaunting  self  and  giving  a  false  impression,  though  it  is  often 
met,  is  too  belittling  and  unworthy  to  receive  any  consid- 
eration. 

In  the  assignment  the  lesson  should  be  discussed  from  be- 
ginning to  end.     In  this  discussion  emphasis  should  be  laid 


Accessories  of  tlie  Recitation  9S5 

upon  the  points  of  likeness  between  the  various  facts  of  this 
and  other  lessons  with  their  essential  points  of  likeness  and 
difference  made  clear.  In  every  lesson  there  is  generally 
some  particular  method  of  attack  which  will  yield  results 
better  than  another.  Just  what  form  of  attack  is  best  fitted 
for  each  particular  lesson  the  teacher  must  determine.  Much 
of  the  lesson,  too,  is  fundamental,  the  rest  merely  explanatory 
to  or  descriptive  of  it.  In  the  paragraph  for  example  there 
is  a  main  sentence  around  which  the  rest  of  the  paragraph 
clusters.  In  the  paragraph  it  is  the  topic  sentence  which  is 
primary  and  around  which  all  else  clings  as  merely  descrip- 
tive or  explanatory.  The  proper  assignment  of  the  lesson 
will  discover  for  the  pupil  that  which  is  important  in  the 
paragraphs  or  topics  of  the  lesson  and  bring  them  out 
clearly.  The  ability  to  separate  the  tares  from  the  wheat 
in  a  lesson  is  more  than  half  of  the  battle.  A  book  does  not 
contain  all  that  is  to  be  known  of  a  subject  and  by  the  very 
necessity  of  the  case  cannot  contain  it.  In  order,  therefore, 
to  make  his  teaching  as  effective  and  broad  as  possible  the 
teacher  should  aim  to  extend  the  facts  of  the  book  which  at 
best  can  be  only  suggestive  of  the  contents  of  that  particular 
field  of  fact  and  thought,  supplement  them  by  adding  those 
facts  of  the  pupil's  individual  experience,  which  have  a  pe- 
culiar force  and  charm  for  him,  and  build  upon  these  by 
references  to  other  texts  where  the  subject  matter  of  the 
lesson  may  be  reviewed.  By  this  means  a  very  strong  stimu- 
lant to  the  activity  of  the  child  mind  may  be  obtained  in  the 
interest  aroused  by  various  discreet  forms  of  comments  and 
queries  in  the  adopted  text,  aided  by  suggestions  as  to  the 
way  the  subject  may  be  found  treated  in  other  texts.  The 
mental  principle  that  gives  justification  to  this  method  is  that 
the  more  forms  and  relations  in  which  a  fact  is  learned  the 
more  numerous  and  strong  will  be  the  associations  formed, 
whereupon  it  will  be  retained  better  and  have  a  greater  work- 
ing force  in  the  individual  mind. 

Outlines  in  Teaching.  A  very  effective  method  of  teach- 
ing, one  highly  recommended  in  all  sections  and  very  gener- 
ally employed,  is  the  method  of  teaching  by  outlines.  This 
is  to  be  especially  advocated  where  the  teaching  is  sufficiently 


286  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

advanced  as  to  be  in  those  subjects  classified  as  content  sub- 
jects in  contradistinction  to  form  subjects.  By  the  time 
the  pupils  have  reached  these  subjects  they  are  sufficiently 
advanced  to  recognize  the  relations  of  facts  and  understand 
the  value  of  their  association  in  educational  processes. 
These  outlines  may  be  given  at  the  beginning  of  a  subject 
and  may  extend  throughout  the  course  if  the  teacher  so  de- 
sires. The  outlines  of  the  work  may  be  given  altogether 
at  the  beginning  of  the  work,  in  parts  as  the  work  progresses 
when  rational  points  of  the  subject  have  been  reached  or 
at  the  end  of  the  year  when  the  subject  has  been  finished. 
Where  there  is  sufficient  time  it  may  be  constructed  from  day 
to  day  as  the  class  progresses  in  the  work.  Where  there  are 
ostensible  reasons  against  the  giving  of  the  outline  at  any 
of  these  times  the  best  good  of  the  class  in  that  subject  as 
judged  by  the  teacher  should  be  the  guide.  It  can  be  readily 
understood  how  particular  local  conditions  might  materially 
affect  the  demand  for  and  use  of  the  outline  in  the  work. 
This  fact  comes  to  the  front  with  force  in  the  matter  of 
subjects  that  are  continued  through  two  or  more  years. 
Here  it  will  be  necessary,  if  the  outline  is  used,  for  the 
teachers  of  the  different  grades  to  confer  and  agree  upon 
the  outline  to  be  given  and  the  amount  that  should  be  given 
out  during  each  year  of  the  work.  The  outline  is  especially 
of  value  in  the  review,  where  it  is  necessary  that  each  part  of 
the  subject  shall  be  seen  and  reviewed  purely  from  its  rela- 
tions to  the  whole.  Outlines  should  be  prepared  fresh  each 
year  with  due  regard  for  the  advancement  and  peculiar  fit- 
ness of  each  particular  class.  This  will  also  give  oppor- 
tunity for  any  change  in  the  subject  matter,  any  advance  or 
increase  of  the  teacher's  knowledge  or  change  of  method  in 
teaching  it.  The  outline  itself  may  best  be  divided  into  two 
parts  appropriate  in  content  and  length  for  the  class  con- 
sistent with  their  age,  advancement  in  the  study  of  the  sub- 
ject and  general  preparation  for  it. 

Another  of  the  special  advantages  of  the  outline  apart 
from  the  knowledge  of  the  whole  which  it  makes  possible,  is, 
that  it  gives  a  logical  division  of  the  subject  even  down  to 
topics  and  subtopics,  when  each  part  of  it  can  be  seen  in  its 


Accessories  of  the  Recitation  £87 

relations  to  the  whole,  one  thing  taken  at  a  time  without  fear 
of  its  being  conceived  of  as  a  separate  whole  without  rela- 
tion to  the  other  parts,  both  those  now  past  and  those  still 
to  come.  By  being  logical  in  division  and  treatment  the  sub- 
ject will  conform  to  the  natural  methods  of  the  mind  and 
consequently  will  be  better  and  more  quickly  grasped  and 
longer  and  more  clearly  retained  by  the  pupil.  Again,  be- 
sides enabling  the  taking  up  of  as  small  a  part  of  the  subject 
matter  as  the  circumstances  may  demand  the  outline  also 
permits  the  limiting  of  the  length  of  the  lesson  with  ease 
without  undue  sacrifice  of  the  connection  and  the  conception 
of  the  part  in  its  relation  to  the  whole.  Success  in  teach- 
ing a  subject  means  that  there  must  be  due  precaution  taken 
to  see  that  a  given  lesson  is  mastered  before  the  class  takes 
up  another.  It  means  also  that  the  assignment  must  not  be 
too  long  even  if  the  assignment  must  be  reduced  to  the  "  one 
thing  at  a  time  and  that  done  well  n  rule.  Furthermore,  it 
means  that  the  various  parts  must  never  be  allowed  to  lose 
their  relation  to  the  whole  in  the  pupil's  mind,  and  that  every 
legitimate  means  available  both  natural  and  artificial  must 
be  taken,  to  remove  all  unnecessary  and  insurmountable  dif- 
ficulties, arouse  interest  and  hold  the  attention  of  the  pupils. 
Teaching  How  to  Study.  While  the  process  of  teaching 
how  to  study  is,  as  is  the  assignment  of  the  lesson,  a  matter 
accessory  to  the  hearing  of  the  recitation,  like  the  assignment 
it  is  really  more  important  than  the  recitation  as  far  as  the 
getting  of  knowledge  from  the  lesson  is  concerned.  This 
fact  is  evident  since  the  hearing  of  the  recitation  is  only  for 
the  purpose  of  seeing  how  well  the  principles  of  the  assign- 
ment and  those  of  studying  have  been  understood  and  how 
effectively  they  have  been  applied.  In  the  crowded  cur- 
riculum of  the  schools  of  to-day  and  the  constant  pressure 
from  parents,  superintendents  and  school  authorities  for 
tangible  evidences  of  progress,  the  teacher  who  has  not  full 
self-possession,  determination  and  a  clear  knowledge  of  that 
which  is  fundamental  in  school  processes  in  contradistinction 
to  that  which  is  superficial,  is  often  likely  to  desert  the  true 
educative  processes  for  the  false  ones.  Demanding  results  in 
a  schoolroom  without  knowing  how  these   results   are   ob- 


888  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

tained,  how  permanent  they  are,  or  how  effective  for  life  they 
will  be,  is  a  serious  mistake  and  one  which  no  well  wisher  of 
the  school  or  of  the  pupils  can  safely  afford  to  do.  When 
those  on  the  outside  make  this  demand  without  knowing  the 
evil  it  will  entail  upon  the  pupils,  it  becomes  the  duty  of  the 
teacher  who  does  know  this,  to  insist  upon  the  righteousness 
of  his  method  and  to  pursue  the  ends  of  the  school  work 
according  to  those  methods  which  science  assures  him  will 
bring  about  the  best  and  most  lasting  results.  Demand 
for  subjects  should  never  be  allowed  to  take  precedence  over 
the  demand  for  study  hours,  nor  the  amount  of  work  which 
can  be  thoroughly  and  well  done,  neither  with  the  teacher  nor 
with  the  pupil.  Study  hours  should  be  given  to  all  pupils 
of  whatever  grade  and  should  be  well  dispersed  throughout 
the  entire  day  and  week.  Not  only  study  hours  when  the 
pupils  may  study  undisturbed  are  necessary,  but  also  study 
hours  when  they  may  study  under  the  guidance  and  super- 
vision of  the  teacher.  Every  daily  program  if  it  expects 
success  to  attend  the  efforts  of  the  teacher  should  allow 
vacant  periods  for  teacher  and  pupils,  especially  in  the  lower 
grades,  where  the  habits  of  study  are  being  formed  and  the 
pupils  need  help  and  guidance.  For  in  the  early  stages  of 
acquiring  habits  of  study  the  pupils  need  the  assistance  and 
supervision  of  the  teacher.  As  was  seen  above,  the  pupil 
either  through  inattention  or  other  causes  is  likely  at  any 
time  to  miss  the  assignment  of  the  lesson  or  when  he  does 
not  miss  it  to  misunderstand  it.  Unless  discovered  and 
remedied  early  this  shortcoming  will  bring  serious  obstruction 
to  the  progress  of  the  child  in  his  work.  But  only  conjoint 
study  between  teacher  and  pupil  can  detect  this  fact  in  time 
to  bring  about  the  best  results  for  the  pupil.  Whenever 
there  is  a  misunderstanding  or  miscarriage  of  the  assignment 
undirected  study  is  a  harm  whose  effects  may  develop  bad 
habits  in  the  child  that  will  follow  him  throughout  his  edu- 
cational career  and  even  on  into  the  activities  of  life  itself. 
Of  course,  just  as  it  is  bad  application  of  principle  to  make 
the  assignment  so  easy  that  the  child  will  have  nothing  to  do 
and  thereby  defeat  the  very  purpose  of  assignment,  so  it  is 
possible  for  the  teacher  in  attempting  to  study  with  the 


Accessories  of  the  Recitation  289 

child,  to  study  for  him  and  thereby  give  the  child  nothing 
to  do  to  cultivate  his  mind  and  whet  his  appetite  for  study, 
thus  robbing  him  of  the  true  benefits  of  study,  making  him 
lazy  and  dependent  and  annulling  the  good  effects  of  both 
the  study  period  and  the  studying  process,  for  the  attain- 
ment of  which  the  study  period  and  its  methods  were  origin- 
ally initiated.  However,  it  must  not  be  understood  that 
mere  reading  over  of  the  lesson  with  a  pupil  is  study  prop- 
erly so-called.  There  must  be  explanation,  the  explanation 
arising  from  thought-compelling  questions,  thought-com- 
pelling voids  in  the  content  of  the  lesson. 

The  first  time  the  lesson  is  read  over  only  the  more  promi- 
nent facts  should  be  sought  out.  These  should  be  explained 
and  driven  home  to  the  mind.  Subsequent  readings  should 
each  add  their  quota  of  facts  of  secondary  or  tertiary  im- 
portance until  all  that  is  desirable  in  a  lesson  is  obtained. 
Like  the  words  of  the  teacher  but  perhaps  more  prominently 
and  frequently  so,  the  words  of  the  text  are  beyond  the  com- 
prehension of  the  pupils.  As  a  result  he  may  oftentimes 
labor  throughout  the  study  period  not  getting  his  lesson 
not  alone  because  he  does  not  know  how  to  get  it,  but  also 
because  he  does  not  know  why  he  does  not  know  how. 
Another  advantage  of  the  study  period  is  that  during  it  the 
teacher  can  learn  the  methods  of  study  used  by  the  pupils 
and  thereby  discover  wherein  they  are  faulty  and  very  often 
why  in  their  application  they  bring  failure.  L.  R.  Fiske  says 
in  this  regard  that  during  the  study  period  the  teacher  should 
find  out  not  only  "  what  has  been  learned  "  but  also  "  how 
the  student  proceeds  in  gaining  knowledge  should  be  inves- 
tigated and  guidance  offered  "  where  necessary.  Hinsdale 
writes  "  The  teacher  is  to  help  the  pupil  to  learn  his  lesson 
by  explaining  its  language.  He  should  not  so  much  work 
for  the  pupil  as  with  him.  He  should  guide  him  not  by  di- 
recting him  to  go  forward  but  by  leading  him  forward." 
Prof.  Frank  McMurray  in  his  "  Method  of  the  Recitation  " 
says  "  wrong  methods  of  study,  involving  much  unnecessary 
friction,  prevent  enjoyment  of  school.  This  want  of  en- 
joyment results  in  much  dawdling  of  time,  a  meager  quantity 
of  knowledge  and  a  desire  to  quit  school  at  the  first  oppor- 


290  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

tunity."  The  danger  of  misunderstanding  and  confusion 
from  the  language  of  the  text  books  is  particularly  promi- 
nent where  different  text  books  are  used  in  the  same  class, 
or  where  in  attempting  to  supplement  the  work  of  the  class, 
pupils  are  referred  to  other  texts.  While  such  a  practice  is 
undoubtedly  a  commendable  one  and  is  filled  with  magnificent 
possibilities  of  good,  the  teacher  should  be  well  acquainted 
with  the  texts  suggested  both  in  their  thought  content  and 
word  usage  so  that  he  will  know  that  it  will  be  easily  under- 
stood and  that  it  will  not  either  by  the  facts  it  gives,  the 
language  which  it  uses  to  express  these  facts,  or  by  the  trend 
of  the  thought  advanced,  bring  out  in  the  pupil's  mind  con- 
tradiction or  lead  to  confusion  in  the  pupil's  thought.  These 
dangers  if  allowed  to  creep  into  the  use  of  new  or  different 
text  books  will  do  more  harm  than  the  supplementary  knowl- 
edge they  contain  will  do  good.  "  To  make  the  text  book 
a  help  "  therefore,  says  Bain,  "  and  not  a  hindrance  demands 
the  greatest  delicacy;  the  sole  consideration  being  that  the 
pupil  must  be  kept  in  one  single  line  of  thought  and  never 
be  required  to  comprehend  on  the  same  point  conflicting  or 
varying  statements." 

Study  Questions.  In  centering  the  attention  of  the  pupils 
upon  the  main  points  of  the  lesson  a  system  of  questions  have 
been  worked  out  known  as  "  study  questions  "  which  are  very 
widely  in  use  and  which  have  received  the  sanction  of  most 
authorities  on  the  subject  of  pedagogy.  These  study  ques- 
tions are  ordinarily  divided  into  two  groups:  "  questions  for 
facts  "  and  "  questions  for  thought."  Questions  for  facts 
are  of  particular  use  and  value  in  the  lower  grades  where 
the  thought  power  of  the  child  is  just  beginning  to  unfold. 
As  the  thought  power  of  the  child  grows  and  his  development 
along  this  line  is  assured,  there  should  be  a  corresponding 
substitution  of  the  questions  for  thought  for  the  questions  for 
fact.  The  principal  drawback  to  the  method  is  when 
it  remains  composed  entirely  of  questions  for  facts.  These 
tend  to  chop  the  lesson  up  into  a  mass  of  ungraded  elements 
and  calls  for  facts  without  showing  their  natural  relation 
to  other  facts.  It  also  too  often  descends  to  the  stage  of 
mere  mechanical  parrotlike  study  period  and  recitation  that 


Accessories  of  the  Recitation  £91 

are  the  ruination  of  independence  in  study,  thought,  recita- 
tions, knowledge  and  afterwards  in  the  activities  of  life  itself. 
Everybody  who  studies  or  has  studied  knows  that  very  few 
of  the  facts  of  a  given  lesson,  section  or  chapter  are  of  equal 
importance.  Any  system  of  questions  for  attack  and  mas- 
tery of  these  facts  that  cannot  or  does  not  recognize  and  al- 
low for  this  difference  in  importance  must  of  necessity  be 
faulty,  allow  of  frequent  error  and  entail  much  needless  and 
profitless  labor.  Questions  of  fact  in  the  study  of  the  les- 
son tend  very  strongly  in  this  direction.  Because  of  the  low 
status  of  the  child  mind  they  are  perhaps  necessary  in  the 
lower  grades  but  should  be  abandoned  as  early  as  the  develop- 
ment of  the  class  intelligence  will  permit,  if  they  are  to  do 
good  and  not  harm. 

Besides  the  fact  that  these  questions  produce  self-activity 
and  even  thought  on  the  part  of  the  child,  they  give  him 
something  definite  to  do,  and  serve  to  awaken  in  him  the 
spirit  and  desire  for  achievement,  when  answers  to  them  are 
found.  Too,  since  they  are  concrete,  they  have  a  native 
power  to  awaken  and  enliven  interest,  especially  when  the 
interest  of  a  long  and  tedious  lesson  would  lag.  These  ques- 
tions should  always  be  upon  the  main  points  of  the  para- 
graph or  topics.  Where  there  are  subtopics  or  points  of  sec- 
ondary importance  questions  should  indicate  their  presence 
as  well  as  their  relation  to  the  main  points,  and  discussions 
should  show  their  value  in  the  lesson.  All  study  questions 
are  best  put  on  the  board  and  perhaps  hidden  from  view  by 
a  map  or  other  device  until  the  class  is  ready  for  them  in 
order  to  avoid  the  distraction  which  they  will  cause  when 
exposed  to  view  while  other  matters  or  recitations  are  before 
the  class.  This  is  on  the  assumption  that  all  study  ques- 
tions are  prepared  beforehand  by  the  teacher  either  at  home 
before  school  or  even  during  a  study  period  of  the  pupils. 
If  study  questions  are  to  do  justice  to  the  pupil  and  the 
lesson  and  give  credit  to  the  teacher,  previous  preparation  of 
them  is  always  necessary.  Once  prepared,  convenience  may 
demand  at  times  that  they  be  dictated  to  the  pupils  from 
the  teacher's  copy.  Study  questions  become  particularly 
effective  if  the  class  has  been  accustomed  to  outline  work  in 


£92  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

the  text.  In  such  case  the  questions  can  be  shown  in  their 
relation  to  the  entire  outline.  In  this  manner  gradually 
the  questions  for  minor  facts  may  be  omitted  and  by  referring 
to  the  outline  and  the  main  points  as  indicated  by  the  ques- 
tions, the  pupils  may  easily  detect  all  that  is  important  in 
the  lesson  and  just  wherein  they  are  important.  As  the  child 
becomes  experienced  in  the  use  of  questions  and  outlines  he 
can  produce  both  for  himself  and  work  by  them  now  and  later 
when  he  will  have  reached  the  point  of  independence  in  the 
schoolroom  and  recitation  processes.  This  should  be  the 
true  aim  of  the  teacher  in  all  of  his  efforts  with  the  pupil. 
Then  he  will  be  able  to  direct  his  own  studies  almost  entirely 
independent  of  the  teacher. 

The  Effect  of  Environmental  Conditions  on  Study. 
Other  things  of  importance  that  will  contribute  materially 
to  the  results  of  the  study  period  in  the  school  are  the  phys- 
ical environment  of  the  room,  the  physical  and  mental  en- 
vironment of  the  pupil  and  the  condition  of  the  tools  (facts) 
with  which  he  has  to  work.  Anything  which  tends  to  in- 
crease the  normal  dissipation  of  energy  will  to  that  extent 
effect  the  capacity  of  the  pupil  for  study.  While  all  forms 
of  physical  defects  produce  a  constant  drain  upon  the 
bodily  energies  in  the  activity  of  the  organs,  the  sense  of 
sight  is  the  chief  source  of  drain  in  study,  if  defective.  Bad 
light,  bad  ventilation,  bad  heating  and  other  unfavorable 
conditions  such  as  the  accommodations  of  the  body  in  the 
seat,  all  tend  to  dissipate  the  energy  of  the  pupils  and  cause 
early  fatigue  in  whatever  form  of  activity  body,  mind  or 
both,  are  engaged. 

In  this  regard  the  effect  of  the  use  of  hard  pencil  and  bad 
paper  in  the  case  of  written  exercises  is  worthy  of  notice. 
Besides  the  serious  temporary  weakening  and  possible  per- 
manent impairment  of  the  organs  of  sight  by  such  a  practice 
if  continued,  the  immediate  strain  upon  the  eyes  in  reading 
faint  writing  is  very  exhausting  and  would  soon  dissipate 
the  energies  of  the  body  and  make  successful  study  impos- 
sible. Soft  lead  pencil  writing  on  good  paper  is  much  better 
on  the  eyes  than  that  of  hard  pencils.  But  as  far  as  the 
eyes  are  concerned,  experiments  have  shown  that  material 


Accessories  of  the  Recitation  293 

written  in  ink  is  the  most  satisfactory  study  material  for  the 
pupils.  Of  these  black  ink  used  on  good  paper  gives  best 
results,  closely  followed  by  writing  in  heavy  blue  ink.  Study 
of  this  question  of  favorable  working  instruments  and  favor- 
able working  conditions  has  caused  much  attention  also  to 
be  given  to  the  matter  of  the  quality  of  paper  and  the  size 
of  print  used  in  text  books.  Not  only  are  these  of  vital 
importance  to  the  health  of  the  pupil  and  to  his  eye  sight, 
but  they  materially  affect  the  study  habits  of  the  pupils. 
Pupils  who  must  strain  their  eyes  to  make  out  the  physical 
character  on  a  page  or  must  even  put  forth  special  effort 
to  make  them  out  clearly  are  placed  at  a  disadvantage  at  the 
outset  and  are  called  upon  constantly  to  put  energy  into  the 
mere  matter  of  distinguishing  the  characters  which  should 
go  into  the  understanding  of  the  facts  of  the  lesson  and  the 
mastery  of  the  thought  elements  contained  in  it.  If  both 
of  these  must  go  on  during  the  study  period  the  pupils  soon 
become  tired  and  exhausted  long  before  the  study  period 
is  over  or  the  lesson  is  mastered.  Those  pupils  who  suffer 
from  bad  or  defective  eyes  become  exhausted  even  before  the 
remainder  of  the  class. 

Home  Study.  It  is  this  guidance  and  supervision  of  study 
so  necessary  to  young  minds  which  is  made  possible  by  the 
presence  of  the  teacher  which  gives  school  study  the  ad- 
vantage over  home  study.  In  most  homes  the  requisite  con- 
ditions of  quiet  together  with  a  fitting  place  for  study  are 
generally  wanting.  Too,  oftentimes  the  child  is  disturbed 
from  his  study  by  thoughtless  parents,  relatives  or  friends 
merely  for  service  or  convenience  and  less  often  as  a  means 
of  discipline  and  punishment.  Few  parents  know  the  real 
value  of  study  to  the  child,  while  still  fewer  parents  are  able 
to  aid  their  children  in  the  processes  of  study.  Of  those  few 
who  are  able  to  aid  them  only  the  most  limited  number  know 
the  methods  best  calculated  to  give  the  desired  results  in 
knowledge  and  in  strength  required  for  future  self-direction. 
In  the  young  from  a  physiological  viewpoint  there  should  be 
as  little  restriction  upon  the  activity  of  the  child  outside  of 
school  hours  as  possible.  For  this  reason  lessons  that  will 
confine  pupils  or  restrict  their  activity  out  of  school  to  any 


294  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

great  extent  should  not  be  given  them.  Besides  that,  in 
these  younger  ones  more  so  than  in  the  older  pupils  the 
habits  of  study  need  to  be  guided  so  that  they  may  be 
properly  performed  and  the  child  be  given  the  proper  start 
in  his  school  work.  Parents  seldom  have  the  time  to  give 
their  children  for  studying  with  them,  assuming  that  they 
know  how  to  study  with  them  properly.  Again  the  material 
for  illustration,  suggestion  and  help  available  in  the  school 
room  during  the  study  period  if  it  could  be  used  skillfully 
at  home  by  the  parents,  which  is  seldom  the  case,  are  not  to 
be  had  generally  there.  So  that  for  all  of  these  reasons, 
namely,  to  secure  the  proper  formation  of  habits  of  study,  to 
have  available  the  proper  accessory  illustrative  material 
for  study  and  the  general  supervision  and  direction  of  efforts 
in  study  within  the  time  allowed  for  this  supervision  and 
direction,  to  be  assured  of  some  one  charged  with  the  re- 
sponsibilty  of  seeing  to  its  use  and  the  general  strain  and 
restriction  it  puts  upon  the  child  activity  outside  of  school 
hours,  the  assigning  of  lessons  for  home  study  is  to  be  con- 
demned especially  in  the  lower  grades  and  to  be  sanctioned 
even  to  a  small  degree  only  after  children  have  advanced 
sufficiently  in  years  and  acquisition  as  to  be  practically  self- 
directive  and  at  the  same  time  have  bodies  sufficiently  strong 
to  stand  the  strain  and  confinement  incident  to  home  study. 

REFERENCE  READING 

Bagley's  "  Educative  Process."     Chaps.  XIX,  XXI,  XXII. 

DeGarmo's  "  Interest  in  Education."     Chaps.  XII,  XIII. 

Morgan's  "  Psychology  for  Teachers."     Chap.  II. 

White's  "The  Art  of  Teaching."     Chap.  IX. 

Jones'  "  Teaching  Children  to  Study."     Chaps.  VI,  VII,  VIII. 

Colgrove's  "The  Teacher  and  the  School."     Chaps.  XIX,  XX,  XXI. 

See  also  references  Chap.  XIII  —  The  Hearing  of  the  Recitation. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  HEARING  OF  THE  RECITATION 

The  Kinds  of  Recitations.  There  are  two  kinds  of  recita- 
tions, the  written  and  the  oral.  Even  the  examination  as 
conducted  in  the  school  serves  as  a  form  of  the  recitation. 
Both  for  the  sake  of  time,  which  is  a  very  important  factor, 
as  we  have  seen,  in  the  routine  processes  of  the  schoolroom, 
and  for  the  sake  of  the  proper  expression  of  ideas,  which  is 
paramount  both  in  the  routine  processes  of  the  schoolroom 
and  in  after  life,  the  oral  recitation  is  to  be  preferred  in 
the  classroom  to  the  written.  Another  point  in  favor  of 
the  oral  recitation  is  that  it  permits  a  free  and  ready  ex- 
change of  ideas  both  between  pupils  and  between  pupils  and 
teacher,  as  well  as  makes  easy  the  correction  of  mistakes 
either  in  the  understanding  of  the  text  or  in  the  expression 
of  the  ideas  gleaned  from  it. 

Written  recitations  too,  have  their  good  points  and  are 
advisable  at  times  both  for  the  sake  of  variety,  for  the  con- 
centration it  brings  and  the  intensity  it  gives  to  the  mental 
processes  by  combining  in  action  the  sense  of  seeing  the 
sense  of  hearing  and  sometimes  the  muscular  sense  (in  writ- 
ing the  exercise).  Written  exercises  are  best  done  on  the 
black  board  where  all  may  see  the  work  and  get  the  benefits, 
thus  concentrated  and  intensified,  of  the  criticism,  correc- 
tion of  mistakes  and  other  helpful  suggestions.  The  writ- 
ten recitation  also  may  serve  as  an  exercise  in  writing. 
Such  an  end,  however,  with  it  should  only  be  secondary, 
especially  since  writing  is  provided  for  by  special  arrange- 
ment in  the  daily  program.  Most  of  the  consideration  there- 
fore, here  will  be  given  to  the  oral  recitation.  Where,  how- 
ever, the  written  recitation  is  meant,  the  reader  will  be  able 
to  understand  it  as  such  from  the  sense  of  the  text,  if  no 

special  mention  is  made  of  the  fact. 

295 


296  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

In  the  recitation  the  teacher  may  have  the  pupils  recite 
individually  or  he  may  have  the  class  as  a  whole  recite  in 
unison.  The  best  and  perhaps  the  only  valid  reasons  for 
the  class-union  recitation  is  that  it  serves  as  a  variety  and 
breaks  the  monotony,  saves  the  time  of  the  class,  both  that 
which  is  lost  in  rising  and  sitting,  in  passing  unanswered 
questions  from  one  pupil  to  the  other  together  with  that 
time  which  is  lost  in  the  delay  caused  by  the  slow  and  timid 
pupils  and  the  correction  of  such  individual  mistakes  as  are 
detected  in  the  correct  answers  given  by  those  members  of 
the  class  who  know  the  lesson.  Psychologically  the  joint 
recitation  tends  to  arouse  the  mind,  stimulate  it  to  action 
and  thereby  gain  interest  and  hold  the  attention.  However, 
while  these  points  in  favor  of  the  class  unison  recitation  are 
worthy  of  consideration,  they  make  impossible  some  of  the 
basic  purposes  in  which  the  recitation  originally  was  in- 
tended to  serve  the  individuals  of  the  class.  So  that  as  a 
continuous  process  of  hearing  the  recitation  the  method  is 
to  be  condemned.  The  recitation  is  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
dividual as  well  as  class  work.  Teachers  hear  lessons  more 
to  learn  what  the  student  does  not  know  than  to  learn  what 
he  does  know.  The  class  unison  method  reduces  the  obtain- 
ing of  this  information  to  a  minimum.  Thus  it  is  hardly  pos- 
sible in  the  class  recitation,  for  example,  to  tell  whether  the 
assignment  was  properly  understood  and  applied  or  whether 
the  study  period  was  effectively  used  by  those  pupils  who 
do  not  know  their  lessons  and  who  being  aware  of  that  fact 
may  take  advantage  of  the  class  recitation  in  unison  to  hide 
their  faults  and  ignorance  by  either  keeping  their  voices 
low,  or  by  saying  nothing  and  moving  their  lips  in  harmony 
with  the  class,  while  it  is  reciting.  Furthermore  class  reci- 
tation permits  inattention  on  the  part  of  those  members  of 
the  class  who  are  inclined  to  inattention.  Another  very 
common  and  merited  objection  to  it  is  that  it  disturbs  the 
order  of  the  room  and  of  the  whole  building  and  prevents 
effective  study  by  those  classes  in  the  room  that  have  a  study 
period,  as  well  as  of  those  in  the  building  who  happen  to  be 
studing  at  that  time.  Consequently  it  is  rightly  so  that 
the  class  recitation  should  be  little  used,  the  chief  time  and 


The  Hearing  of  the  Recitation  297 

stress  of  the  recitation  being  devoted  to  the  individual  reci- 
tation. 

The  Individual  Recitation.  To  begin  with  in  the  indi- 
vidual recitation  the  child  should  be  taught  to  stand  when 
called  upon  to  recite.  If  sufficient  effort  is  put  into  getting 
onto  his  feet  it  will  help  materially  in  having  him  put  aside 
all  distracting  thoughts  leaving  him  free  to  give  his  whole 
attention  to  the  matter  of  the  recitation.  To  have  the  pupil 
stand  while  reciting  also  tends  to  remove  him  from  any  evil 
influences  of  his  environment;  inasmuch  as  it  generally  puts 
him  beyond  the  reach  of  his  fellows,  or  his  book,  or  both, 
thereby  putting  him  entirely  upon  his  own  resources  and 
compelling  him  to  think  for  himself.  Since,  as  is  generally 
agreed,  the  attitude  of  the  body  reflects  the  attitude  of  the 
mind,  it  follows  that  slouchy,  lazy,  lounging  attitudes  of 
the  body  should  not  be  tolerated  in  the  recitation  for  fear 
they  may  beget  a  like  attitude  of  mind. 

Now  comes  the  recitation  question.  Much  has  been  said 
and  written  about  the  proper  time  of  asking  the  questions 
of  the  recitation !  Here,  too,  variety  might  be  practiced 
to  advantage.  In  fact  stereotyped  methods  in  any  and  all 
forms  of  school  exercises  are  to  be  in  general  condemned. 
It  will  be  found,  in  the  recitation  questions,  to  be  productive 
of  the  best  results,  if  the  pupils  are  made  to  stand  before  the 
questions  are  asked  them.  The  advantages  are  obvious.  In 
the  first  place  this  method  arouses  in  the  pupil  expectant  at- 
tention in  which  state  of  mind  the  pupil  is  more  likely  to 
summon  all  of  his  efforts  and  begin  to  think,  running  through 
in  his  mind  all  of  the  topics  and  study  questions  of  the  les- 
son. It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  this  method  in  some  minds 
will  tend  to  confusion  and  the  loss  of  the  power  to  think, 
the  longer  the  period  of  delay  the  greater  the  helplessness 
and  confusion.  In  these  cases,  which  will  be  due  to  individual 
temperaments  it  will  be  best  to  change  the  method  so  as  to 
give  the  pupil  a  chance.  During  the  moment  of  expectant  at- 
tention as  never  before  the  child  will  appreciate  the  need 
of  having  previously  mastered  his  lesson.  The  question 
coming  then  removes  him  entirely  from  his  neighborhood 
environment  and  the  last  vestige  of  distraction  elements  be- 


298  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

ing  forced  out  of  him,  temporarily  at  least,  leaves  him  free 
to  devote  his  whole  thought  power  to  the  finding  of  the 
proper  answer  to  the  question.  This  method  is  very  rigor- 
ous and  highly  disciplinary.  By  some  it  is  condemned  be- 
cause under  it  the  timid  and  easily  excited  pupils  become 
confused  in  the  interim  between  the  request  to  rise  and  pro- 
pounding of  the  question,  whereupon  all  knowledge  either 
"  vanishes  into  thin  air  "  or  loses  its  connection  in  their  train 
of  thought  thus  resulting  in  the  giving  of  an  incorrect 
answer.  There  is,  to  be  sure  some  justification  in  this  plea. 
However,  the  validity  of  the  other  method  is  not  to  be  ques- 
tioned on  this  account,  nor  its  use  abandoned.  In  general, 
it  is  undoubtedly  the  best  method  both  for  matters  of  the 
recitation  and  as  a  measure  of  discipline.  Along  with  the 
matter  of  the  appropriate  method  of  asking  them,  it  goes 
without  saying  that  all  questions  should  be  clear,  brief  and 
contain  but  one  centra  1  thought.  Nothing  is  more  con- 
fusing to  any  mind  or  more  discouraging  to  pupils 
who  have  spent  so  much  time  and  effort  in  preparing 
a  lesson  than  to  be  confronted  in  the  recitation  with 
questions  that  are  either  untimely,  indefinite,  unclear 
or  too  long.  Of  course,  from  this  it  does  not  follow  that 
questions  should  be  mechanical,  or,  especially  with  the  pupils 
of  the  higher  grades,  that  they  should  be  mere  questions 
for  facts,  but  rather  questions  for  thought.  Fact  ques- 
tions rather  mechanize  and  stagnate  the  mental  powers, 
while  thought  questions  arouse  the  mind  and  stimulate  it  to 
healthy  activity.  When  answered  nothing  less  than  a  full 
answer  to  the  question,  such  an  one  that  will  indicate  fully 
that  the  pupil  has  both  heard  and  understood  the  ques- 
tion in  detail  should  with  justice  be  accepted. 

The  method  has  been  adopted  in  many  schools  of  having 
the  pupil  so  shape  the  answer  that  it  will  repeat  the  word  and 
thought  of  the  question.  This  method  has  its  good  quali- 
ties and  may  be  practiced  where  preferred,  though  the  method 
has  been  overdone  and  debased  by  many  untactful  and  un- 
resourceful  teachers.  The  only  thing  essential  in  answers 
as  well  as  questions  is  that  they  should  be  full  in  their  thought 
content  as  well  as  in  their  form  content.     The  time  long 


The  Hearing  of  the  Recitation  299 

method  of  questioning  given  to  the  teaching  profession  by 
Socrates  and  bearing  his  name  is  still  in  use.  It  is  still  to 
be  recommended  to  all,  though  it  has  its  shortcomings,  its 
force  for  effectiveness  depending  upon  the  teaching  qualities 
of  the  teacher  who  handles  it.  The  Socratic  method  gets 
its  virtue  in  fact  almost  entirely  from  the  skill  with  which 
it  is  used.  Its  aim  is  to  deprive  the  mind  of  its  power  by 
stripping  it  of  its  contents,  show  what  little  it  contains  and 
create  in  the  mind  a  desire  for  that  knowledge,  which  it  does 
not  contain  and  thereby  excite  to  activity  in  an  effort  to 
acquire  such  knowledge.  It  stimulates  the  mind  to  think 
for  itself.  The  method  is  to  be  condemned  to  the  extent  that 
it  is  not  effective  to  present  truth  but  only  puts  the  mind  in 
a  position  to  receive  truth,  whereupon  it  must  go  off  in 
search  of  it.  It  only  draws  out  that  which  is  in  the  mind. 
Present  day  methods  however  do  not  aim  to  stop  there. 
They  not  only  must  create  a  conscious  need  for  truth,  but 
they  must  either  supply  it  or  see  to  it  that  it  is  supplied. 
Its  duty  lies  more  in  the  latter  field.  To  effectively  apply 
the  art  of  questioning  requires  more  than  a  novice.  To 
be  effective  questions  must  come  from  those  who  know  the 
psychological  laws  of  association  and  suggestion  as  well 
as  the  laws  of  mind  in  general.  Equally  must  the  questioner 
know  the  subject  matter  both  in  part  and  in  its  entirety, 
and  the  relation  which  the  part  bears  to  the  whole.  With 
this  before  him  the  purpose  of  the  lesson,  just  what  part  in 
the  whole  the  facts  of  to-day's  lesson  are  to  play,  what  par- 
ticular gap  in  the  student's  mind  is  to  be  filled  by  them,  can 
be  readily  brought  out,  and  must  be,  if  the  purposes  of  the 
recitation  are  to  be  fulfilled. 

The  Order  of  Questioning.  In  what  order  these  questions 
are  to  be  asked  is  the  problem  which  is  now  to  be  considered. 
One  of  my  teachers  in  college  in  a  class  of  about  seventy- 
five  used  to  enroll  us  on  specially  prepared  recitation  card 
forms.  These  were  arranged  alphabetically.  Before  he  had 
gone  many  letters  down  the  alphabet  most  of  the  class  had 
caught  on  to  his  method  and  proceeded  to  prepare  their  les- 
son as  the  Professor's  progress  down  the  line  of  names  seemed 
to  indicate  that  their  turn  would  come  probably  in  the  next 


300  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

day's  run.  Just  about  the  time  the  class  had  become  settled 
down  to  this  method  the  Professor  without  a  word  of  warn- 
ing struck  consternation  into  our  midst  one  morning  by 
shuffling  the  cards  and  making  a  new  start.  He  went  around 
the  class  several  times  that  morning  and  had  time  to  spare. 
The  wisdom  of  the  procedure  needs  little  comment.  The 
brighter  and  more  honest  members  of  the  class  soon  found 
the  safe  road  to  good  marks  and  ultimate  promotion  and 
followed  it.  In  this  connection  there  are  many  methods  to 
follow  in  asking  questions  of  a  class  in  the  recitation.  They 
may  be  asked  alphabetically,  by  the  order  of  seating,  the 
order  of  enrollment,  their  rank  in  the  class,  and  other 
methods.  But  that  is  just  where  a  grave  fault  lies.  To 
attempt  to  follow  any  order  for  any  length  of  time  is  unsafe 
for  the  best  results.  The  most  stupid  and  dull  pupil  soon 
learns  such  a  method  when  employed  by  a  teacher.  In  fact 
the  more  stupid  and  lazy  pupils,  if  they  do  not  detect  such 
a  method  first,  at  least  are  among  the  first  to  avail  them- 
selves and  prepare  themselves  and  their  lessons  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  profit  by  it.  Experience,  and  it  requires  very 
little,  showrs  that  calling  upon  pupils  to  recite  at  random, 
is  always  productive  of  the  best  results.  Then  pupils  can 
conscientiously  prepare  each  lesson  expecting  that  he  will  be 
called  upon  more  or  less  times  to  do  a  fair  part  of  the  class 
reciting  each  day.  Besides  this  the  ability  to  propose  ques- 
tions opportunely  for  answers  is  effective  in  discipline  and 
soon  wins  both  the  fear  and  respect  of  the  pupils.  The 
evil  of  ignoring  the  dull  pupil  in  favor  of  the  bright  ones 
is  a  common  one.  Pupils  should  all  be  treated  alike  and  given 
equal  opportunity  for  reciting  each  day's  lessons.  They 
ought  never  be  allowed  to  feel  that  they  will  in  all  probability 
not  be  called  on  again,  or  at  least,  not  until  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  class  have  recited.  When  for  example,  for  any 
reason  disorder  prevails  in  any  section  of  the  room  giving 
out  a  question  then  and  there  to  the  pupil  in  disorder,  or 
requiring  him  to  take  up  the  question  where  the  other  left 
off  will  serve  to  produce  order,  enforce  attention  and  teach 
the  child  the  need  of  always  paying  strict  attention  to  the 
processes  and  progress  of  the  recitation.     The  real  fact  is, 


The  Hearing  of  the  Recitation  501 

the  effect  is  wholesome,  if  pupils  can  be  made  to  feel  at  all 
times  that  they  may  be  called  upon  either  to  begin  to  recite, 
to  complete  the  unfinished  recitation  of  another  or  even  to 
repeat  such  a  recitation.  When  such  methods  being  em- 
ployed fail  and  the  proper  disciplinary  measures  follow  once 
or  twice  it  will  be  discovered  that  more  attention  will  be  de- 
voted to  the  recitation  by  all  members  of  the  class  and  that 
it  will  take  on  new  life  and  show  marked  change  for  good. 

The  Function  of  the  Teacher  in  the  Recitation.  Teachers 
should  never  lose  sight  of  their  function  in  the  recitation. 
To  hear,  correct,  explain,  extend  and  briefly  supplement 
the  expressed  thoughts  of  the  pupil  is  their  whole  duty.  The 
recitation  is  not  for  the  teacher,  it  is  for  the  pupil.  For 
the  teacher  to  use  it  in  telling  what  he  knows  of  the  lesson 
to  the  pupils  is  ostensibly  out  of  order.  Too,  consequently, 
his  language  should  be  simple,  brief  and  always  to  the  point. 
To  be  a  good  listener  is  a  trait  whose  quality  is  proverbial 
but  nowhere  is  it  more  valuable  than  when  properly  exercised 
in  the  schoolroom  by  the  teacher.  To  offer  the  missing 
thought  or  word  whenever  there  is  a  pause  in  the  flow  of 
language  of  the  child  soon  checks  the  flow  entirely  or  sadly 
impairs  it  and  tends  to  make  of  the  otherwise  industrious 
energetic  pupil  a  lazy,  lounging  drone,  always  sufficiently 
awake  to  start  off  the  recitation  feeling  assured  that  the  ever 
ready  teacher  will  finish  whatever  he  starts  out  with.  The 
real  end  of  the  hearing  of  the  recitation  is  to  test  how  well 
from  the  student's  viewpoint  the  lesson  has  been  assigned, 
how  well  studied,  how  well  the  principles  of  studying  applied 
and  how  well  the  facts  and  thoughts  of  the  lesson  together 
with  the  words  in  which  they  are  encouched  have  been  under- 
stood. This  can  only  be  known  by  letting  the  child  express 
his  knowledge  gained  about  the  lesson  in  his  own  language, 
tell  what  he  himself  has  gotten  out  of  the  lesson  and  tell  it 
in  his  own  language.  It  is  a  serious  mistake  for  the  teacher 
to  allow  himself  to  feel  that  he  can  anticipate  what  the  child 
is  going  to  say.  He  can  only  know  what  is  coming  from  the 
pupil  when  the  pupil  has  finished  with  his  recitation.  The 
recitation  should  be  exact,  complete  and  as  brief  as  a  full 
statement  of  it  will  allow.     Brevity,  however,  in  the  recita- 


302  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

tion,  is  secondary  and  will  be  acquired  only  by  practice. 
Pupils  should  be  taught  to  be  definite  in  expression  of  their 
thought.  No  answer  ending  in  "  and  something  like  that  " 
should  be  tolerated.  Such  answers  if  allowed  have  a  tend- 
ency soon  to  break  down  all  disposition  toward  exactness 
and  care  in  the  preparation  of  the  work  for  the  recitation. 
Time  may  become  very  pressing  at  times,  the  demand  for 
speed  and  advancement  imperative,  whereupon  the  desire  to 
assist  with  a  word  or  two  will  almost  be  uncontrollable. 
Surely,  the  teacher  may  reason,  just  a  word  here  or  there 
to  help  express  an  idea  that  is  known  cannot  do  much  harm. 
But  if  indulged  in,  it  marks  the  beginning  of  a  habit  to 
help  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  and  a  habit  to  await  the 
assistance  of  the  teacher  by  the  pupil,  both  of  which  habits 
easily  grow  and  ruin  the  best  capacity  for  work  in  each. 
I  know  it  may  seem  to  the  teacher  that  since  the  pupil  knows 
the  lesson  and  knows  how  to  express  it  in  the  main,  that  one 
word  has  failed  him,  the  time  of  the  class  cannot  be  taken 
up  in  this  waiting  and  hence  it  will  not  matter  if  I  help  him 
a  little.  This  is  a  common  and  potent  argument  in  such 
cases,  but  the  best  thing  to  do  is  for  the  teacher  to  guide 
and  direct  the  work,  leaving  the  actual  doing  of  it  for  the 
pupils.  This  will  be  found  best  for  the  good  of  the  pupil 
in  every  way.  Reason,  the  art  of  reciting,  the  habits  of 
study  of  the  pupils  as  shown  above  and  the  work  of  the 
recitation  for  the  pupil  are  soon  ruined  by  this  method.  The 
start  once  made,  it  is  easy  to  keep  up  the  practice.  Here 
a  bad  habit  is  hard  indeed  to  break.  Soon  the  pupil  will  be 
hearing  the  recitation  instead  of  the  teacher  and  the  teacher 
will  be  reciting  instead  of  listening  to  the  pupils  recite.  Such 
teaching  is  the  great  burden  of  the  profession  to-day.  Of 
course  the  teacher  can  tell  the  pupil  and  save  time  for  other 
work.  This  much  is  granted.  But  what  good  will  the 
pupil  get  out  of  it?  How  much  independence  of  action,  how 
much  thought  activity,  how  much  knowledge,  will  the  pupil 
get  out  of  it?  What  is  happening  to  the  pupil  all  of  this 
time?  How  is  the  judgment  of  the  effects  of  the  assignment 
to  be  gained  by  this  method?  How  is  that  of  the  study 
period?     JIpw  is  the  teacher  to  know  whether  or  not  |hg  pupil 


The  Hearing  of  the  Recitation  303 

understands  the  words  of  the  text,  whether  or  not  he  is  grow- 
ing in  power  of  self-direction  in  his  study,  whether  or  not 
his  power  of  expression  is  developing  and  whether  or  not 
he  is  acquiring  facts  of  knowledge  and  power  of  thought 
in  using  them?  All  of  these  are  primary  in  the  methods  of 
the  recitation,  yes  in  the  method  of  the  schoolroom  and  of 
the  whole  educative  process  of  the  school,  if  the  child  is  to 
be  aided  at  all  by  it  in  his  preparation  for  activity  in  the 
broader  field  of  life.  As  to  how  much  talking  the  teacher 
may  safely  do  in  the  recitation  there  is  now  and  has  ever 
been  a  serious  problem.  Of  the  two  evils  how  much  talking 
or  how  little,  it  is  pretty  hard  to  decide  which  is  worse. 
It  is  perhaps  better  too  little  than  too  much,  though  both 
are  bad.  However,  the  former  is  the  greater  evil  and  the 
one  that  needs  to  be  most  inveighed  against.  In  general 
it  might  also  be  said  that  the  teacher  should  aim  to  make 
his  efforts  tell  and  do  his  talking  in  the  assignment  and  dur- 
ing the  study  period,  while  the  pupil  should  be  allowed  to 
make  his  efforts  tell  in  the  recitation.  At  appropriate  mo- 
ments the  teacher  may  step  in  and  support  the  child  when 
he  cannot  help  himself.  But  he  must  be  well  assured  of  this 
fact.  Nor  must  the  act  be  committed  too  often.  The 
mere  fact  that  time  is  pressing  is  no  legitimate  excuse  for 
too  much  activity  and  talking  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
during  the  hearing  of  the  recitation.  Indeed  that  is  just 
why  the  time  for  hearing  of  the  recitation  is  given  to  the 
school.  To  use  it  for  the  purpose  of  the  recitation  is  not 
only  legitimate  but  a  necessity,  for  the  rendition  of  proper 
and  successful  service  to  the  public  by  the  school  and  the 
teacher. 

The  Favorite  Subject.  Other  dangers  to  the  attainment 
of  good  results  in  the  recitation  are  the  favorite  pupil  and 
the  favorite  subject  or  subjects.  The  danger  which  the 
favorite  subjects  offer  is  of  secondar3r  importance  in  the 
conduct  of  the  recitation.  They  should  have  been  properly 
disposed  of  by  the  course  of  study  and  the  daily  program, 
if  they  were  properly  made  out  and  are  properly  followed. 
The  trouble  with  the  favorite  pupil  and  the  favorite  subject 
is  that  they  are  a  part  of  our  nature  and  owe  their  existence 


804  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

to  the  principle  of  individualism  that  runs  through  all  animal 
life  and  if  we  are  to  accept  the  more  sweeping  opinion  of  the 
advanced  scientists  through  both  the  vegetable  and  mineral 
kingdoms.  That,  therefore,  we  meet  the  problem  of  favor- 
ite pupils  and  subjects  in  the  schoolroom  need  not  surprise 
us  in  any  way.  Under  this  principle  it  will  be  natural  to 
find  both  pupils  and  subjects  that  will  interest  some  teachers 
more  than  others.  This  fact,  however,  because  of  the  harm 
consequent  in  its  practice  in  the  schoolroom  should  not  be 
allowed  to  enter  and  vitiate  the  work  of  the  schoolroom.  Very 
often  favorite  subjects  have  followed  teachers  all  of  the  way 
through  their  school  career  and  by  reason  of  over  attention 
to  them  they  are  especially  proficient  in  them.  The  fact  of 
its  being  a  favorite  subject  is  probably  due  to  some  special 
ability  which  they  discovered  they  possessed  in  it.  The  op- 
posite history  is  probably  true  of  those  subjects  that  are 
not  favorite  subjects.  Where  teachers  find  it  necessary  to 
handle  the  non-favorite  subjects  the  very  fact  that  they  are 
inefficient  in  them  should  cause  them  not  to  neglect  them 
either  in  the  process  of  the  assignment,  the  study  period  or 
the  recitation.  The  fact  should  rather  cause  them  by  resolu- 
tion and  effort  to  strive  to  make  their  efforts  with  them 
especially  detailed,  careful  and  resultingly  successful.  Nor 
should  they  neglect  those  subjects  in  which  they  are  more 
proficient  and  better  prepared  to  handle  in  the  processes 
of  the  assignment,  the  study  period  and  the  hearing  of  the 
recitation.  The  aim  should  rather  be  to  carry  them  all 
along  with  due  effort  to  the  demands  and  best  good  of  the 
individual  pupil  and  the  class  as  a  whole. 

The  Favorite  Pupil.  The  favorite  pupil  is  a  problem  of 
a  slightly  different  nature.  To  begin  with  he  is  everywhere 
present.  We  find  him  in  all  classes  and  subjects.  Not  that 
he  is  the  special  favorite  of  the  teacher  in  bestowing  his 
evidences  of  approval,  or  that  he  is  picked  out  for  all  of 
the  special  privileges  of  the  school,  though  these  generally 
fall  to  his  lot.  In  that  case  it  is  a  matter  of  school  dis- 
cipline and  government  and  not  one  of  the  conduct  of  the 
recitation.  Here,  it  is  that  pupil  who  is  particularly  bright 
and  apt  in  various  ones  or  even  in  all  of  his  subjects,  who 


The  Hearing  of  the  Recitation  805 

learns  his  lessons  well,  understands  quickly  the  assignment, 
knows  how  to  use  the  directions  of  the  study  period,  who 
learns  his  lessons  well  and  quickly  and  expresses  himself 
clearly  and  fully  and  freely.  This  is  the  favorite  pu- 
pil in  the  hearing  of  the  recitation.  How  to  handle  him 
best  for  his  own  good  and  that  of  the  class  is  the  problem. 
When  the  recitation  lags  the  teacher  is  inclined  to  use  him 
to  bridge  over  the  gap,  when  a  point  in  the  lesson  is  not 
clear  or  incompletely  brought  out  or  only  partially  correct 
he  is  the  one  to  be  used  as  a  means  of  getting  the  proper 
answer  and  thereby  awaken  a  feeling  of  pride  in  the  other 
less  apt  pupils  of  the  class.  This  is  especially  true  if  there 
are  patrons,  friends  or  school  officials  present  and  the  teacher 
wishes  the  class  work  to  appear  well.  He  is  in  the  true 
sense  the  "  whip "  of  the  classroom  recitation.  Through 
him  the  teacher  gets  lessons  recited  and  incidentally  stimu- 
lates the  other  pupils  to  habits  of  study  and  the  making  of 
better  recitations. 

All  teachers  have  had  their  favorite  pupil  in  this  sense. 
They  would  hardly  be  human  if  they  did  not.  But  to  treat 
him  this  way  is  the  beginning  of  evil.  Teachers  owe  it  to 
themselves,  the  pupil  himself  and  the  class  not  to  give  such 
a  pupil  too  much  time,  attention  and  consideration,  either 
on  special  or  ordinary  occasions.  For  once  such  a  method  is 
started  it  is  but  a  short  step  from  this  to  the  habit  of  ignor- 
ing the  less  apt  pupils  and  giving  all  attention  to  the  few 
favorite  pupils,  adjusting  all  demands  of  work,  all  remarks, 
explanations  and  suggestions  to  them  and  their  abilities 
rather  than  to  the  general  intellectual  aptness  and  capacity 
of  the  class  as  a  whole.  In  which  case  we  have  a  class  of 
special  pupils  rather  than  a  class  of  pupils  of  various  abili- 
ties each,  however,  developed  to  some  degree  and  advanced 
to  some  extent  in  the  work  of  the  class.  The  problem  of  the 
apt  or  favorite  pupil  has  led  to  the  tendency  quite  prevalent 
in  many  school  systems,  but  which  has  a  good  and  a  bad  side, 
of  separating  the  bright  and  dull  pupils  and  of  making  of 
them  separate  classes.  The  argument  justifying  this  pro- 
cedure is  that  the  dull  pupils  are  a  hindrance  to  the  bright 
ones  and  since  the  schoolroom  puts  a  premium  on  self  activity 


806  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

and  individuality  the  proper  tiling  to  do  is  to  put  the  brighter 
pupils  together  in  a  class  where  they  can  secure  the  greatest 
self-activity  and  put  forth  the  greatest  individual  effort. 
The  argument,  it  must  be  admitted,  has  some  weight,  but  the 
fact  remains  that  while  the  dull  pupil  may  be  a  drawback  in 
many  ways  to  the  bright  pupil  he  is  also  of  material  ad- 
vantage to  him.  His  untiring  effort  is  a  good  lesson  in  in- 
dustry and  his  questions  and  mistakes  together  with  their 
correction  by  the  teacher,  will  undoubtedly  expand  the  knowl- 
edge of  any  pupil,  however  bright  or  advanced  he  may  be. 
Besides  it  is  a  fact  that  the  most  effective  work  in  teaching 
is  done  by  those  teachers  who  realize  that  they  have  a 
mediocre  class  which  must  receive  their  very  best  efforts  if 
they  are  to  make  fitting  progress.  Consciousness  on  the 
part  of  a  teacher  that  a  class  does  not  need  care  and  effort 
will  generally  make  that  teacher  careless  and  a  bright  class 
will  soon  become  a  dull  one. 

The  favorite  pupil  in  the  recitation  comes  in  for  particular 
consideration  on  certain  occasions  as  has  been  said  above. 
But  though  on  such  occasions  the  teacher  may  mean  well 
by  the  practice,  besides  its  being  discouraging  to  the  more 
faithful  pupils  and  very  often  ruining  the  bright  pupils  by 
giving  so  much  consideration  and  attention  to  them,  the 
method  is  to  be  condemned  because  it  does  not  represent  in 
the  pupil  his  ability  to  receive  teaching,  or,  to  use  a  coined 
word  it  does  not  represent  his  "  teachableness."  To  this 
extent  such  a  pupil  is  not  a  credit  to  the  teacher  nor  does 
he  represent  the  actual  ability  of  the  class  or  the  fruits  of 
the  teacher's  effort  with  the  class.  Again,  it  is  not  the  doing 
of  the  easy  work  that  makes  the  man  strong  nor  the  teaching 
of  the  naturally  bright  pupils  that  proves  the  teaching 
ability  of  the  teacher.  But,  just  as  power  and  skill  are 
shown  in  the  ability  with  which  the  mechanic  performs  the 
difficult  tasks,  so  teaching  is  evident  only  in  getting  good 
results  out  of  mediocre  students.  The  fact  is  that  if  any 
members  of  the  class  above  all  others  need  the  attention  and 
efforts  of  the  teacher  constantly  in  the  recitation,  it  is  the 
mediocre  and  lazy  pupils.  The  bright  ones  will  generally 
take  care  of  themselves. 


The  Hearing  of  the  Recitation  307 

Nor  is  the  habit  of  teaching  for  the  "  average  pupil,"  so 
often  recommended,  best.  The  efforts  of  the  teacher  should 
by  all  means  be  directed  toward  the  individual  pupil  and  the 
work  arranged  for  his  benefit  and  advancement.  In  actual 
practice  there  is  no  average  pupil,  but  there  are  individual 
pupils.  The  recitation  is  for  the  whole  class  and  the  ques- 
tions should  be  so  shaped  and  the  answers  to  them  so  given 
that  all  may  profit  by  them.  The  same  should  hold  true  of 
all  explanations,  suggestions,  references,  explanations  and 
facts  added  by  the  teacher.  Questions  should  be  passed 
around  to  all  alike  and  all  should  be  forced  to  take  an  active 
interest  and  part  in  the  recitation.  Questions  should  be 
asked  and  answers  given  in  the  ordinary  tone  of  voice,  but 
clear  and  distinct.  Repetition  should  be  avoided,  the  pupils 
being  given  to  understand  at  the  outset  that  they  must  give 
close  attention  and  "  catch  "  the  question  when  it  is  first 
asked.  The  habit  of  repeating  questions  besides  losing  much 
valuable  time  that  should  be  given  to  the  recitation  en- 
courages the  pupils  in  not  giving  attention.  No  ends  ac- 
ceptable to  the  basic  principles  of  education  can  justify  any 
other  method  of  treating  the  pupils  in  the  hearing  of  the 
recitation.  The  questions  of  the  teacher  in  the  first  place 
should  open  the  child's  mind  for  the  reception  of  the  answers 
given  and  the  facts  should  be  so  given  as  to  satisfy  the  de- 
mand thus  created.  There  have  been  innumerable  methods 
devised  for  the  successful  hearing  of  the  recitation.  The 
teacher  who  is  enthusiastic  and  aggressive  will  acquaint  him- 
self with  the  major  portion  of  these  through  the  study  and 
reading  of  such  professional  literature  as  will  point  out  to 
him  the  more  common  methods  out  of  which  he  can  select 
those  that  appeal  to  him  as  most  practical  for  his  own  use. 
Teachers  should  be  conversant  with  many  methods  so  as  to 
be  able  readily  to  vary  methods,  thus  keeping  up  interest 
and  stimulating  memory.  For  the  best  results  in  the  life  and 
interest  of  the  class  and  the  conservation  of  time,  speed  in 
movements,  in  thinking  and  speaking  are  essential  both  in 
the  asking  and  answering  of  questions  in  the  recitation. 
Then,  too,  sloth  and  sluggishness  here  soon  lead  to  a  like 
state  in  the  mind  whereby  the  whole  aim  of  the  recitation 


808  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

is  weakened  if  not  entirely  annulled.  Looking  to  this  end 
care  should  be  taken  that  lesson  assignments  are  not  too 
long.  Nothing  is  more  detrimental  to  successful  recitation 
processes  than  long  lessons.  The  quick  movements  and  quick 
answers  require  in  their  execution  and  utterance  greater 
concentration  of  energy  and  more  intense  discharge  of  it. 
This  will  tend  to  exhaust  more  rapidly  the  available  energy 
when  the  recitation  lags  and  the  effects  having  been  weakened 
are  neither  strong  nor  permanent  in  the  association  they  form 
nor  the  suggestion  they  arouse. 

Copying  and  Cheating.  Crime  exists  in  the  world  not  so 
much  because  men  are  bad  by  nature  as  because  they  are 
weak  and  selfish.  Life  as  an  active  striving  process  is  a 
bundle  of  desires.  Desires  crave  satisfaction  in  the  yearn- 
ing of  the  soul  which  they  beget,  they  disturb  the  mental, 
moral  and  physical  equilibrium  and  impel  to  that  form  of 
conduct  in  which  intelligence  sees  the  possibility  of  gaining 
the  object  of  desires  and  by  its  satisfaction  of  restoring 
the  body  again  to  a  state  of  equilibrium.  For  this  reason 
only  such  punitive  systems  are  justified  which  either  satisfy 
the  desire  legitimately,  divert  them  into  channels  where  le- 
gitimate satisfaction  of  the  desire  is  possible  or  remove  the 
desire  entirely.  Those  desires  which  men  cannot  satisfy 
by  their  honest  efforts  they  either  curtail  or  satisfy  by  dis- 
honest efforts.  This  is  the  philosophy  of  crime  both  in  the 
young  and  in  the  old.  The  stronger  the  will  power  and  the 
keener  the  intellect  the  less  disposed  is  the  individual  to 
crime,  for  he  can  both  see  the  effects  in  consequences  of  his 
crime  and  will  thereby  become  stronger  to  control  his  action. 
Equally  true  is  it  that  the  more  of  his  desires  he  can  natur- 
ally and  legitimately  satisfy  the  less  is  their  demand  upon 
him  for  illegitimate  satisfaction,  namely  for  crime. 

Now,  the  chief  crime  that  the  teacher  has  to  deal  with  in 
the  recitation  is  that  of  cheating  and  copying.  Investiga- 
tion shows  that  cheating  is  done  by  pupils  who  do  not  know 
their  lessons  and  cannot  answer  the  questions  and  do  the 
work  of  the  recitation  without  assistance  from  others.  While 
the  teacher  should  by  all  means  possible  strive  to  break  up 
the  practice  of  copying  and  cheating,  he  should  also  strive 


The  Hearing  of  the  Recitation  309 

to  find  out  the  cause  of  it  and  remove  it,  remembering  that 
until  he  can  do  this  it  is  safer  to  have  the  pupils  understand, 
that  it  is  much  better  for  them  to  get  the  help  openly  from 
him  than  to  seek  it  secretly  from  others.  The  teacher  can 
help  in  a  way  to  open  the  avenues  of  self  help  for  the  pupil, 
for  pupils  do  not  know  often  of  means  of  self  help  nor  do 
they  realize  the  dangers  that  lurk  in  their  own  methods  of 
prompting  one  another  and  of  giving  to  and  of  receiving  aid 
from  one  another.  The  cause  of  the  lack  of  knowledge  of 
the  pupil  of  the  subject  matter  of  the  lesson  either  is  laziness 
and  lack  of  application,  some  form  of  physical  weakness  such 
as  impediment  of  speech,  or  of  mind  such  as  slowness,  timidity, 
bashfulness  or  lack  of  understanding  of  the  words  of  the 
text,  the  assignment  of  the  lesson  or  the  proper  use  of  the 
study  period.  If  it  happens  to  be  laziness  that  has  placed 
him  in  the  position  of  not  having  gotten  his  lesson  then  a 
corrective  means  either  punitive  or  disciplinary  should  be 
applied.  However,  it  will  not  do  for  the  teacher  to  con- 
clude too  hastily  that  it  is  due  to  laziness  on  the  part  of 
the  pupil.  Even  when  the  cause  has  been  found  to  be  lazi- 
ness oftentimes  upon  examination  the  methods  of  the  teacher 
will  be  found  to  have  been  contributory  to  that  laziness 
rather  than  to  have  detracted  from  it.  Oftentimes  again, 
various  forms  of  physical  defects  hidden  in  the  inner  physical 
structure  of  the  child  may  be  a  contributing  cause,  or  some 
form  of  inherent  weakness  or  secret  malady  may  cooperate  to 
sap  the  energy  and  vitality  of  the  pupil,  though  the  general 
bodily  appearance  and  attitude  of  the  child  may  be  expected 
generally  to  betray  such  early,  when  present.  Affections 
of  the  eye  and  the  ears  are  particularly  contributory  to  bad 
work  in  the  school  and  especially  in  the  recitation.  When- 
ever careful  observation  of  the  pupils  fails  to  disclose  any 
of  these  shortcomings  and  the  teacher  still  has  reason  to 
believe  that  they  exist  he  should  call  in  professional  assist- 
ance on  the  one  hand  for  the  pupil  and  look  carefully  into 
himself  to  see  if  the  trouble  does  not  lie  within  himself.  A 
little  care  in  the  technique  of  the  assignment,  a  little  special 
supervision  during  the  study  period  and  perhaps  a  revision 
of  the  study  questions  according  to  the  prescribed  principles 


310  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

together  with  the  putting  forth  of  special  effort  to  draw 
the  pupil  out  more  fully  during  the  hearing  of  the  recitation, 
if  it  does  not  cure  the  trouble  will  at  least  point  it  out  so 
definitely  that  the  teacher  can  then  more  readily  form  and 
apply  methods  to  overcome  the  fault.  The  use  of  objects 
and  other  illustrative  material,  such  as  maps,  pictures,  etc., 
since  they  possess  natural  powers  of  clarifying  knowledge 
can  often  be  employed  in  these  cases  to  advantage. 

Examinations  and  Reviews.  Memory  and  retention  de- 
pend largely  upon  the  clearness,  vividness  and  repetition 
of  the  original  stimuli;  whether  they  be  mere  sense  disturb- 
ances, newly  given  perceptions  or  recently  created  concep- 
tions. The  especial  process  of  repetition  known  to  the  reci- 
tation is  the  review.  The  purpose  of  the  review  in  the  recita- 
tion is  to  recall  and  fasten  in  the  mind  the  facts  of  former 
lessons,  connect  them  together  and  bind  them  into  a  whole 
based  upon  definite  relations.  Inasmuch  as  the  early  im- 
pressions in  the  young  are  light  and  the  paths  of  nervous 
discharge  for  various  stimuli  shallow  and  often  but  poorly 
formed  they  are  easity  removed  and  lost  track  of  in  the 
stress  of  responding  and  forming  paths  of  discharge  for  the 
inroad  of  new  stimuli  unless  they  are  retained  and  made 
permanent  by  renewed  discharges  by  means  of  reviews.  Too, 
the  molecular  combinations  resulting  from  the  ideas  in  the 
minds  of  the  young  as  translation  of  the  molecular  motion 
started  by  the  external  stimuli  along  the  paths  of  discharge 
are  particularly  unstable  and  unless  they  are  made  deeper 
and  more  stable  by  repetition  soon  under  the  tendency  to 
break  up  and  form  new  combinations  lose  their  force  of  at- 
traction and  disintegrate.  These  are  the  physiological  justi- 
fications of  reviews.  Pedagogically  speaking,  a  part  of  each 
day's  recitation  period  should  be  given  over  to  the  review  in 
order  to  prepare  the  pupil's  mind  for  the  reception  of  the 
advance  lesson  and  provide  a  fitting  opportunity  for  con- 
necting the  facts  of  the  new  lesson  with  those  of  the  past 
lessons.  The  further  on  the  class  is,  the  more  general  and 
more  important  the  facts  brought  forward  each  day  in  the 
review  become.  The  importance  of  reviews  especially  where 
outlines   are  not  available  is  always  to  be  noted  and  suf- 


The  Hearing  of  the  Recitation  311 

ficient  time  in  the  program  allowed  for  them.  In  reviews, 
however,  only  the  thought  and  the  most  important  thought 
at  that  can  receive  time  and  attention.  The  descriptive  de- 
tails that  serve  the  purpose  only  of  accentuating  or  making 
clear  the  facts  need  receive  in  review  no  more  than  passing 
consideration,  even  if  that.  Care  must  be  taken  in  the 
review,  however,  that  the  pupils  do  not  become  weary  or  that 
the  facts  of  the  review  lessons  become  common  and  thereby 
repulsive  thus  begetting  indifference  to  them  on  the  part  of 
the  pupils. 

Reviews  if  allowed  to  affect  pupils  in  this  way  are  perhaps 
worse  than  no  review  at  all,  tending  as  it  will  to  decrease 
the  desire  for  knowledge  and  decrease  the  effort  toward  self 
activity.  Child  mind  especially,  tires  very  rapidly  of  that 
which  has  become  familiar.  It  demands  ever  the  new  to 
excite  interest,  gain  and  hold  the  attention.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  where  the  reviews  involve  going  over  the  pages 
of  the  text  again  and  again.  Carelessness  in  preparation, 
indifference  to  the  work  of  the  lesson  and  general  discour- 
agement are  very  prominent  dangers  to  this  kind  of  re- 
view. Of  course,  only  chiefly  the  old  facts  can  be  brought 
out  in  the  review,  otherwise  it  would  not  be  a  review.  To 
meet  this  demand  in  the  young  for  something  new,  however, 
the  old  facts  can  be  presented  in  new  ways,  illustrated  by 
new  material  (intellectual),  by  the  outline  or  other  devices 
of  the  teacher  and  thus  made  pleasing,  interesting  and  ef- 
fective. In  this  way,  too,  variety  can  be  introduced  at  any 
time  whereby  the  facts  of  the  text  will  not  lose  their  spici- 
ness  and  power  to  awaken  interest  and  hold  attention.  Both 
reviews  and  examination  show  the  teacher  how  well  his  work 
of  outlining  the  text,  making  the  assignment,  directing  the 
work  of  the  study  hour,  providing  the  study  question,  ask- 
ing the  questions  of  the  recitation  and  explaining  and  sup- 
plementing the  thoughts  of  the  pupils  have  been  done, 
wherein  he  has  failed,  what  is  necessary  to  be  repeated  and 
what  avoided  in  the  future  for  improvement  and  permanence 
in  the  class  work,  the  recitation.  The  advantage  of  exam- 
inations over  reviews  is  gained  by  the  fact  that  more  time 
is  given  to  them,  they  are  written,  represent  more  fully  the 


312  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

detailed  reflective  and  retentive  powers  of  the  individual 
pupil  and  afford  opportunity  for  detailed  study,  by  the 
teacher,  of  the  good  and  bad  side  of  his  methods,  besides 
bringing  to  the  surface  other  little  faults  in  spelling,  writing 
general  diction  and  misunderstanding  both  of  the  sense  and 
words  of  teacher  and  text. 

"  The  Aim  of  the  Recitation"  The  usual  methods  of  im- 
parting knowledge  are  through  books  in  the  general  sense  of 
the  term,  by  formal  lectures,  various  forms  of  explanation, 
a  proper  use  of  questions,  by  direct  observation,  experiment 
or  experience  or  by  a  combination  of  any  two  or  more  of 
these  methods.  The  aim  of  the  recitation  in  so  much  as  it 
is  the  crowning  point  of  the  school  process  and  in  relation 
to  which  all  other  processes  are  merely  secondary  and  con- 
tributory, is  co-extensive  with  the  aim  of  the  school  and 
that  of  the  educative  process  itself.  To  attempt  to  enumer- 
ate and  discuss  all  or  even  most  of  them  here  would  carry 
the  work  far  beyond  its  intended  scope.  The  mention  and 
brief  discussion  of  a  few  of  these,  the  most  important,  how- 
ever, will  not  be  amiss  here.  Generally  speaking  the  aim  of 
the  school  is  to  put  into  the  possession  of  the  child  the  known 
instruments  of  civilized  man  and  to  give  him  skill  and  power 
in  their  use.  The  immediate  process  by  which  more  than 
any  other  it  is  sought  to  accomplish  this  end  is  the  recita- 
tion. Consistent  with  this  view  the  aim  of  the  recitation 
first  of  all  is  to  prepare  the  child's  mind  specifically  to  re- 
ceive knowledge,  to  impart  to  it  knowledge  and  to  train  him 
how  to  use  and  acquire  knowledge  independently  for  himself. 
Or,  stated  somewhat  differently,  the  recitation  aims  to  give 
new  knowledge,  to  connect  this  new  knowledge  to  old  knowl- 
edge and  thereby  extend  the  latter,  and  to  enable  the  ap- 
plication of  knowledge  to  the  practical  affairs  of  life  by 
furnishing  a  supply  of  good  habits  in  physical  and  mental 
movements.  One  author  states  the  aim  of  the  recitation 
as  being  "  to  give  knowledge  in  the  arts ;  power  in  knowl- 
edge getting  and  knowledge  using ;  knowledge  of  how  to  treat 
our  bodies ;  how  to  treat  our  fellows,  how  to  be  mentally  and 
physically  happy;  how  to  shape  and  attain  ideals;  how  to 
reach  truth."     Another  offers  the  following  as  the  chief  aim 


The  Hearing  of  the  Recitation  319 

of  the  recitation ;  "  to  arouse  class  interest ;  to  accomplish 
class  work;  to  effect  advance  in  work;  to  promote  inde- 
pendent work ;  to  secure  power  of  expression ;  to  exercise  the 
mind."  To  these  aims  might  be  added  the  ones,  to  organize 
ideas  and  provide  individuality  in  thought  and  action.  Here 
is  undoubtedly  a  variety  of  purposes  for  the  recitation  in 
its  entirety  to  serve.  It  can  hardly  be  doubted  but  that  it 
does  to  a  considerable  extent  serve  these  ends.  Indeed  it 
serves  these,  as  has  been  said,  and  many  others.  However, 
the  best  that  may  be  said  for  all  of  these  aims  is  that  they 
emphasize,  if  indeed  emphasis  be  necessary,  very  decidedly, 
the  great  importance  of  the  recitation  and  the  very  impera- 
tive need  that  it  and  all  of  its  accessories  conjointly  and  in 
detail  be  carefully  administered  if  the  work  of  the  whole 
school  is  not  to  fail,  and  the  time,  energy  and  money  of  all 
who  contribute  either  directly  or  indirectly  both  parent, 
child  and  citizen  to  the  efforts  to  provide  educational  op- 
portunity for  the  child  and  place  him  under  the  control  of 
the  best  educational  processes  be  not  used  in  vain.  Having 
considered  the  aim  of  the  recitation  we  now  pass  to  the  steps 
of  the  recitation. 

The  Steps  of  the  Recitation.  Some  authors  give  as  the 
steps  of  the  recitation  preparation,  presentation,  analysis, 
abstraction  and  application.  Others  give  preparation, 
presentation,  association,  comparison,  generalization  and 
practical  application.  Still  others  shorten  or  extend  this 
list  by  addition  to  or  omission  from  it.  All  of  these  steps 
have  been  foreshadowed  in  the  previous  discussions  of  the 
chapter  on  the  "  Accessories  of  the  Recitation  "  and  the 
earlier  part  of  this  chapter.  They  are  more  or  less  familiar 
to  the  whole  educational  world  and  also  generally  in  use  by  it. 
They  are  more  suggestive  in  use  than  mandatory.  The 
essentials  of  them  should  be  followed  in  every  recitation, 
but  to  attempt  to  adhere  too  rigidly  to  them  in  practice 
would  so  mechanize  the  recitation  as  to  reduce  its  effective- 
ness. The  purpose  of  the  first  step,  namely,  the  preparation 
both  of  the  teacher's  mind  by  the  teacher  becoming  thor- 
oughly conversant  with  the  facts  of  the  lesson,  in  their  re- 
lations with  the  preceding  and  succeeding  lessons  and  the 


314  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

mind  of  the  pupil  for  the  reception  of  the  facts  of  the  les- 
son, in  order  that  he  may  easily  and  readily  comprehend 
it,  is  to  be  gained  by  the  refreshing  of  the  teacher's  mind  with 
the  nature  and  relation  of  the  facts  and  that  of  the  pupil 
with  the  facts  learned  in  the  past  lessons,  their  connection 
with  those  to  come  and  their  relation  to  the  entire  subject 
as  treated  in  the  text  and  given  in  the  outline.  The  un- 
prepared teacher  is  like  a  ship  at  sea  without  a  rudder, 
unable  to  make  the  shore,  wandering  helplessly  about 
embarrassed  by  her  helplessness  yet  unable  to  make  progress 
in  the  lesson.  A  state  of  unpreparedness  in  the  teacher  be- 
fore his  class  is  wholly  inexcusable  and  fraught  with  every 
evil  misfortune  common  to  the  school.  To  attempt  to  sow 
the  seeds  of  fact  in  the  lesson  in  the  unprepared  soil  of  the 
child's  mind  is  almost  equally  costly.  The  preparation  of 
the  child's  mind  however  for  the  recitation  is  practically 
accomplished  in  the  assignment,  if  the  assignment  were  prop- 
erly made.  It  depends  for  its  force  chiefly  upon  the  laws 
of  memory,  oftentimes  called  the  laws  of  association,  sug- 
gestion or  simularity,  whereby  in  the  mental  processes  like 
tends  to  recall  like ;  contrast,  whereby  opposites  tend  to 
recall  each  other;  contiguity  whereby  the  perception  of 
things  related  in  time  and  space  tend  to  recall  each  other  in 
the  mental  processes,  etc.,  etc.  As  was  said  above  the 
preparation  particularly  in  as  far  as  it  refers  to  the  child's 
mind  indicates  what  is  in  it  and  what  is  in  the  lesson,  shows 
the  relation  of  the  two  and  indicates  why  and  wherein  the 
contents  of  the  lesson  will  tend  to  some  degree  to  satisfy 
this  apparent  need.  The  teacher's  preparation  besides  mak- 
ing known  to  him  all  of  these  facts  before  the  recitation, 
permits  him  to  devise  means  of  bringing  out  clearly  and  im- 
pressing forcibly  these  facts  upon  the  minds  of  the  pupils, 
both  naturally  and  by  the  use  of  such  artificial  means  as  may 
be  available  in  the  equipment  of  the  school. 

Presentation.  The  matter  of  presentation  applies  here 
only  to  the  presentation  of  the  facts  of  the  lesson  to  the 
pupils  by  the  teacher.  It  is  a  matter  of  considerable  im- 
portance. Logically  it  follows  the  preparation  of  the  child's 
mind  for  the  reception  of  the  facts  of  the  lesson.     To  be 


The  Hearing  of  tJie  Recitation  815 

properly  done  therefore  it  is  highly  essential  that  the  lesson 
be  so  presented  as  to  show  clearly  to  the  pupil  that  the  les- 
son does  either  wholly  or  in  part  fulfill  the  demand  which 
the  preparation  showed  existed  in  the  chain  of  facts  that 
goes  to  make  up  their  knowledge.  Just  as  the  preparation 
of  the  student  for  the  facts  of  the  recitation  come  in  the 
assignment  so  the  presentation  first  appears  in  the  study 
period.  In  the  presentation  all  of  the  technique  and  general 
principles  of  the  recitation,  the  relation  of  the  whole  to  the 
part  as  well  as  the  general  laws  of  conception  must  be  known 
and  carefully  followed.  Brevity,  clearness,  force  in  state- 
ment of  facts  and  the  general  fitness  of  the  mind  together 
with  the  meaning  of  the  words  of  the  teacher  and  of  the 
text  must  be  well  understood.  The  next  four  steps  of  the 
recitation,  namely,  analysis,  comparison,  abstraction  and 
generalization  are  truly  steps  in  the  recitation  proper. 
Proper  analysis  assumes  that  the  pupil  has  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  material  of  the  lesson,  its  relation  to  that 
which  is  past  and  to  some  extent  to  that  which  is  to  come, 
also  the  proper  disposition  of  the  facts  of  the  lesson  in  their 
natural  relation  with  the  facts  of  the  past  and  the  future 
lessons.  Thus  are  natural  causal  chains  established  in 
thought  and  the  new  properly  assimilated  connected  with 
the  old  and  stored  away  according  to  the  fundamental  laws 
of  the  operations  of  the  mind.  Knowledge,  then,  becomes  in 
the  true  sense  the  possession  of  the  mind. 

Analysis  is  highly  complex  and  can  only  be  done  when  there 
is  full  mastery  of  the  lesson.  It  is,  therefore,  a  stage  in 
mental  progress  whose  attainment  is  worth  the  best  efforts 
of  any  teacher.  Comparison  follows  naturally  as  the  re- 
sult of  analysis.  For  before  analysis  can  be  completed  by 
the  proper  storing  away  of  the  facts  of  the  recitation  in 
their  proper  places,  which  are  determined  by  the  natural 
relation,  each  of  the  parts  appearing  in  the  analysis  must 
be  compared  in  order  that  the  true  relation  existing  between 
them  can  be  discovered  and  the  new  facts  stored  away  on 
the  basis  of  this  discovered  relation,  where,  when  the  par- 
ticular mental  process  is  initiated  they  return  to  conscious 
processes  under  the  control  of  the  laws  of  association,  or,  as 


816  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

they  are  commonly  called,  the  laws  of  suggestion.  Abstrac- 
tion also  may  be  regarded  as  a  cotemporary  process  with 
analysis  as  well  as  an  outgrowth  from  it.  It  is  cooperative 
with  comparison  in  that  when  the  facts  in  their  parts  are 
compared  those  which  fall  together  by  natural  internal  rela- 
tions are  drawn  off  from  the  others  and  set  up  by  themselves. 
Its  special  use  is  to  lead  to  some  general  principle  or  law 
by  the  processes  known  to  logic  as  induction.  It  may  also 
be  used  as  a  process  in  leading  to  deductions.  This  process 
of  abstraction  enables  the  drawing  apart  and  separation  of 
the  individual  facts  upon  which  their  clear  definite  arrange- 
ment is  based.  Abstraction  works  oppositely  by  the  process 
of  deduction,  whereby  the  separate  facts  of  the  lesson  are 
subsumed  under  general  principles  or  laws  already  learned 
and  accepted.  The  principle  of  abstraction  is  also  one  of 
the  highest  powers  of  the  mind  and  as  such  should  receive  the 
constant  attention  and  efforts  toward  development  by  the 
teacher.  Suggestive  questions  given  to  the  pupils  after  the 
facts  of  the  lesson  have  been  mastered  may  lead  to  abstrac- 
tion either  by  induction  or  deduction.  This  becomes  particu- 
larly easy  if  the  pupil  is  allowed  to  use  his  own  language  and 
discover  the  laws  under  guidance  from  the  teacher.  To  be 
of  value  the  pupil  should  be  encouraged  to  discover  the  law 
for  himself  and  not  have  it  pointed  out  to  him.  This  last 
process  is  what  is  sometimes  called  generalization. 

The  last  step  of  the  recitation  —  practical  application  of 
the  facts  of  the  recitation  —  is  supposed  to  give  the  child 
practical  working  efficiency  with  the  knowledge  content  of 
the  lesson.  In  this  step  he  is  supposed  to  know  the  relative 
value  of  the  facts  of  the  lesson  and  be  shown  how  to  apply 
them  in  life.  To  bring  about  this  most  effectively  the  facts 
of  the  lesson  must  be  applied  to  new  examples,  to  other  cases 
not  coming  without  the  restrictions  of  the  lesson  text.  Espe- 
cially is  it  necessary  to  establish  a  relation  between  the  prin- 
ciples and  the  problems  of  daily  life,  whereby  it  may  be  ob- 
served by  the  pupil  wherein  the  school  may  and  does  prepare 
one  for  the  practical  duties  of  life.  Let  this  be  done  and 
the  school  will  have  achieved  a  great  service  for  the  pupil, 
the  state  and  humanity.     The  lesson  steps  should  beget  in- 


The  Hearing  of  the  Recitation  817 

dividuality  in  action  and  power  of  self  assertiveness.  Know- 
ing the  facts  in  their  relations  of  the  part  to  the  whole  and 
the  part  to  the  part,  the  pupil  is  capable  the  more  easily  of 
breaking  them  down  and  rearranging  them  for  any  mental 
process  which  he  contemplates  performing.  He  can  gather 
new  knowledge,  assimilate  it  to  the  old,  initiate  and  originate 
thoughts  by  recombination  of  the  old  and  new  into  different 
or  new  relations,  judge  society  and  modify  his  acts  accord- 
ing to  the  judgments  of  society.  He  can  express  himself  with 
force,  accuracy  and  speed,  learn  the  truth,  shape  and  direct 
his  actions  in  life  so  as  to  attain  his  life's  ideals. 

As  was  said  above,  however,  these  steps  cannot  be  followed 
mechanically  with  any  hope  of  success.  They  must  be  modi- 
fied, omitted  and  combined  as  the  circumstances  will  demand. 
Above  all  there  must  be  variety  in  the  combination  and  use 
of  the  steps  of  the  recitation.  Nothing  prosaic  and  mechan- 
ical in  their  use  will  bring  satisfactory  results.  For  here 
above  all  else  variety  is  the  spice  of  life  and  sameness  or  the 
absence  of  variety  will  destroy  the  living  activity  that  alone 
insures  results. 

REFERENCE  READING 

King's  "Education  for  Special  Efficiency."  Chap.  XIV. 
Bagley's  "The  Educative  Process."  Chaps.  XXI,  XXII. 
DeGarmo's    "  Interest   in   Education."     Chaps.   VIII.   IX,   X.  XI.   XII. 

XIII,  XIV. 
Greenwood's  "  Principles  of  Education."     Chaps.  IV,  V,  VI. 
Bolton's  "Principles  of  Education."     Chaps.  XII,  XVI. 
Baldwin's    "Psychology    Applied    to    the    Art    of    Teaching."     Chap. 

XXVIII.  6  F 

Compayre's  "Psychology  Applied  to  Education."    Chap.  X. 
Rosenkranz's  "Philosophy  of  Education."     Chap.  IX. 
Morgan's  "Psychology  for  Teachers."    Chap.  II. 
Miinsterberg's  "  Psychology  and  the  Teacher."     Chap.  XIX. 
White's  "  Art  of  Teaching?'     Chap.  XII. 
Arnold's  "School  and  Class  Management"     Chap.  Ill,  Sect.  V;  Chap. 

V,  Sect.  VI;  Chap.  X,  Sect.  VI;  Chap.  VII,  Sect  II. 
King's  "Social  Aspects  of  Education."     Chap.  XIX. 
Colgrove's  "The  Teacher  and  the  School."     Chaps.  XVIII,  XVII. 
Bransons'  "  Page's  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching."     VII,  VIII,  IX. 
Howland's  "Practical  Hints  for  Teachers."     Chap.  XVII. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
PSYCHOLOGIC  PROCESSES  IN  EDUCATION 

Since  the  teacher  deals  with  the  child  mind  endeavoring 
to  train  and  develop  it,  if  he  hopes  to  have  any  success 
worthy  of  mention  crown  his  efforts  it  is  highly  essential 
that  he  acquaint  himself  with  the  nature  of  the  child  mind, 
and  most  especially  should  he  get  acquainted  with  its  laws 
and  processes  of  action.  For  this  end  it  is  not  necessary 
that  the  teacher  should  know  theoretical  psychology  nor  even 
practical  psychology  in  all  of  its  details  though  the  more 
knowledge  he  had  with  both  of  these  the  better  would  he  be 
able  to  guide,  direct  and  control  the  child  in  the  various 
school  processes.  However,  it  goes  without  saying  that  if 
the  child  mind  is  understood  in  the  general  detail  of  its 
progressive  unfolding,  both  the  quality  of  work  and  the 
quantity  of  work  during  the  various  periods  of  life  of  which 
the  child  is  capable  can  be  known  definitely  and  the  processes 
of  the  schoolroom  including  the  daily  program,  the  course 
of  study,  the  assignment  of  the  lesson  and  the  hearing  of 
the  recitation  all  can  be  arranged  so  as  to  be  more  nearly 
in  accord  with  the  natural  processes  of  the  mind.  Mere 
casual  observation  has  shown  that  under  certain  natural 
unrestricted  conditions  the  child  mind  works  long  and  with 
evident  pleasure.  It  is  chiefly,  because  of  this  fact,  when  he 
is  introduced  into  the  school  processes  and  does  not  usually 
work  long,  diligently  or  with  apparent  pleasure,  that  the 
school  has  set  out  in  the  method  of  nature  to  bring  into  the 
schoolroom  its  knowledge  of  men  in  order  that  the  ends  of 
society  may  be  achieved  by  nurture  with  at  least  equal  if 
not  more  prolonged  diligence  and  enduring  pleasure  than 
are  to  be  found  in  the  like  processes  of  nature. 

The  school  sought  long  and  wide  for  the  trouble  until  it 

318 


Psychologic  Processes  m  Education  819 

happily  found  that  the  difficulty  lay  chiefly  in  the  difference 
in  method  between  nature  in  the  world  and  nurture  in  the 
schools.  Since,  then,  the  school  bends  all  of  its  efforts  in 
teaching  to  the  reduplicating  of  the  methods  of  nature  in 
the  methods  of  nurture,  it  has  led  to  and  made  imperative 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher  and  those  charged  with  the  re- 
sponsibility of  administering  the  functions  of  the  school  a 
careful  study  of  the  laws  of  growth,  development  and  action 
of  the  mind,  that  is,  has  led  to  the  study  of  psychology. 
In  view  of  this  co-dependence  of  pedagogy  and  psychology  a 
treatise  upon  the  one  would  hardly  be  considered  complete 
without  at  least  a  brief  discussion  and  description  of  the 
more  general  operations  of  mind  immediately  concerned  in 
the  processes  of  teaching  and  instruction.  We  shall,  there- 
fore, divert  at  this  point  and  include  a  brief  discussion  of 
the  more  general  and  essential  mental  processes  concerned  in 
the  work  of  the  school. 

The  Sensorivm.  The  mental  life  clearly  defined  as  such 
when  analysed  for  its  lowest  and  simplest  components  above 
the  stage  of  hazy  semiconsciousness,  is  found  to  begin  in 
the  form  of  an  excitation.  The  stages  of  development  then 
lead  first  to  sensations  and  from  these  on  they  pass  succes- 
sively into  perception,  conception,  imagination,  judgment  and 
reasoning,  together  with  the  accessory  stages  or  concomitant 
states  and  principles  evident  in  interest,  attention,  memory, 
repetition,  acquisition,  association,  with  feeling  and  willing 
as  co-equal  forms  of  these  mental  activities.  The  intellectual 
value  of  excitation  and  sensation  depends  upon  the  nervous 
structure  of  the  body  which  in  its  component  parts  make 
up  the  physical  fabric  of  the  senses.  Collectively  consid- 
ered, this  physical  nerve-fabric  constitutes  what  students  of 
psychology  commonly  call  the  sensorium.  This  term  is  in- 
tended to  include  all  of  the  various  special  senses  of  the  body, 
whether  they  be  accepted  as  the  five  senses  known  to  physi- 
ology for  some  several  centuries  —  sight,  hearing,  tasting, 
smelling  and  touch, —  or  whether  they  be  accepted  as  these 
plus  the  three  or  more  added  and  pretty  generally  recog- 
nized to-day  as  valid,  namely,  the  sense  of  weight,  pressure, 
temperature   and   muscular   tension    (muscular   action)    or 


820  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

whether  even  they  be  extended  so  as  to  include  all  of  the 
theoretical  and  speculative  senses  as  proposed  by  some  of 
the  more  recent  authorities. 

These  senses  are  located,  especially  in  various  parts  of 
the  body,  or  generally  diffused  either  on  the  external  surfaces 
or  permeate  the  various  tissues  and  bony  framework.  They 
are  connected  with  the  intellectual  center,  the  brain  by  the. 
nerves  of  the  body  to  which  they  owe  their  entire  efficiency 
of  action.  These  nerves  are  the  routes  of  travel  and  means 
of  communication  between  the  world  within  the  body  (the 
thought-world)  and  the  world  without  (the  material  world). 
Upon  their  proper  functioning  depends  the  entire  mental  con- 
tent and  working  efficiency  of  the  individual.  All  knowledge 
of  whatever  sort  is  built  up  either  directly  or  indirectly 
out  of  the  material  furnished  by  the  stimulation  of  the 
senses  being  carried  to  the  brain  by  molecular  motion  in  the 
nerves.  The  physical  condition  of  the  child  upon  entering 
school  and  during  the  school  processes,  the  general  capacity 
of  his  sense  apparatus  for  receiving,  transmitting  and  re- 
sponding to  stimuli  must  be  of  a  high  order  if  the  school 
and  the  teacher  are  to  succeed  in  their  efforts  with  and  upon 
him.  They  are  of  paramount  importance  so  far  as  the 
schoolroom  and  its  intellectual  processes  are  concerned. 

The  great  number  and  form  of  defects  both  natural  and 
accidental  with  which  a  child  may  be  afflicted  and  thereby 
be  reduced  to  a  lower  degree  of  mental  efficiency  are  too 
numerous  to  receive  even  mention  here.  But  they  do  exist 
and  do  materially  affect  the  standing  of  such  pupils  in  the 
classroom  work.  The  practice  generally  in  vogue  in  coun- 
tries advanced  in  educational  theory  and  practice,  such  as 
Germany  and  France  and  being  at  present  introduced  into 
the  more  advanced  American  schools,  of  having  attendant 
physicians  either  constantly  or  periodically  visiting  the 
schools  and  examining  the  pupils  in  their  work,  is  a  step  to 
be  highly  commended  in  connection  with  the  matter  of 
physical  defects  and  efficiency  in  schoolroom  work.  Often- 
times these  defects  though  seriously  hampering  the  work  of 
the  pupils  are  of  such  a  nature  that  they  successfully  for 
long  periods   escape  detection   by   the   unprofessional   eye, 


Psychologic  Processes  in  Education  321 

leaving  the  pupil  to  drag  on  wearily  through  his  work  unable 
to  do  the  work  satisfactorily,  despaired  of  by  his  parents 
and  often  abused  and  mistreated  by  both  parents  and  teacher 
and  held  in  low  regard  by  his  schoolmates,  merely  because 
his  afflictions  are  not  known  and  the  suffering  and  incon- 
venience as  well  as  loss  of  mental  and  physical  energy  they 
entail  upon  him,  are  unappreciated.  It  is  also  known  that 
there  are  pupils  of  high  nervous  tension  whose  peripheral 
sense  apparatus  and  nervous  system  respond  to  the  slightest 
stimulation  on  the  one  hand,  and  pupils  of  low  nervous  ten- 
sion on  the  other  hand  whose  peripheral  sense  apparatus 
and  nervous  system  respond  only  to  strong  stimulation. 
Between  these  extremes  are  to  be  found  pupils  ranging  up 
and  down  the  scale  from  one  limit  to  the  other.  Diseases 
of  various  natures  contribute  to  intensify  or  lessen  the  de- 
gree of  nervous  tension.  Foods  and  feeding,  sleep  and 
methods,  places  and  time  of  sleeping  and  other  general 
habits  of  health  all  add  to  or  detract  from  the  general  nervous 
tension  of  the  system. 

Also  as  was  stated  above  the  physical  comfort  of  the  child 
in  the  schoolroom  as  affected  by  the  lighting,  heating,  venti- 
lating and  seating,  all  have  their  due  effect  upon  the  nervous 
tension  of  the  child,  dissipate  more  or  less  his  nervous  energy 
and  reduce  his  working  efficiency.  For  these  conditions  the 
teacher  should  always  be  on  the  lookout.  Knowledge  of 
the  home,  of  the  sleeping  and  feeding  of  a  pupil,  of  the  de- 
gree of  the  general  nervous  tension  of  his  body  will  all  aid 
in  giving  the  teacher  the  understanding  of  his  various  inabili- 
ties in  the  school  processes  and  help  him  in  devising  means 
of  reaching  the  pupil.  Students  of  low  nervous  temperament 
will  respond  less  readily  to  the  stimuli  of  the  recitation,  and 
the  molecular  motion  involved  in  the  grouping  of  molecules 
to  form  ideas  in  such  will  be  less  intense,  and  the  paths  of 
discharge  will  less  deeply  impress  the  molecular  arrange- 
ment of  brain  cells,  thus  making  them  less  permanent  in  their 
combination,  causing  the  facts  the}7  represent  in  thought  to 
be  retained  neither  so  long  nor  so  clearly.  Thus  memory 
will  be  bad,  conceptions  unclear  and  not  permanent.  On 
the  other  hand  the  opposite  will  be  true  of  those  of  high 


322  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

nervous  tension  and  with  those  of  few  physical  defects  or 
entirely  free  from  them. 

The  Important  Senses  m  the  Educative  Processes.  Those 
senses  with  which  we  are  mostly  concerned  in  educational  proc- 
esses are  those  of  seeing  and  hearing  and  in  the  lower  classes 
where  object  teaching  is  a  prominent  part  of  the  exercises 
and  drills  that  of  touching.  Of  these  three  the  sense  of 
hearing  is  perhaps  the  most  important  in  the  lower  grades, 
where  the  pupils  are  dependent  on  the  instructions  and  guid- 
ance of  the  teacher  for  their  learning.  As  they  grow  older 
and  more  independent  and  proficient  in  the  school  exercises 
and  pass  from  form  subjects  to  content  subjects  they  are 
more  dependent  upon  the  sense  of  sight.  The  sense  of  seeing 
is  perhaps  rightly  regarded  as  primary  genetically  as  well 
as  fundamentally  in  all  sense  of  activity.  Too,  it  might  be 
claimed  that  pupils  learn  even  in  their  elementary  work 
more  by  seeing  than  by  hearing,  it  might  even  be  satisfac- 
torily proved  that  they  do.  But  what  is  meant  here  is  that 
although  they  may  see  more  and  indeed  more  that  is  valuable 
in  the  educative  processes,  it  cannot  become  fully  available 
nor  to  any  great  degree  available  except  under  the  guidance 
and  direction  of  the  teacher,  who  must  depend  for  his  im- 
parting of  knowledge  and  explanation  necessary  to  its  un- 
derstanding upon  the  sense  of  hearing  for  his  efforts  reach- 
ing the  brain  and  acting  as  stimuli  to  the  mental  processes. 
The  demand  for  and  use  of  the  sense  of  touch  in  teaching  is 
of  comparative  recent  creation.  It  will  gain  more  and  more 
in  use  in  education  as  object  teaching  comes  into  increased 
use  in  teaching. 

Interest  and  Attention.  The  process  of  perception  and 
conception  do  not  require  detailed  discussion  here  inasmuch 
as  all  that  is  necessary  to  be  said  about  them  can  with  equal 
ease  and  convenience  be  brought  under  the  heads  of  interest 
and  attention,  memory  and  imagination,  a  knowledge  of 
which,  because  of  their  direct  influence  upon  the  results  of 
the  teacher's  efforts  is  of  primary  importance  to  all  who 
would  have  any  degree  of  success  in  educational  work  crown 
their  efforts.  Interest  and  attention  are  absolutely  in- 
dispensable in  the  work  of  the  school.     Attention  is  neces- 


Psychologic  Processes  in  Education  323 

sary  in  all  forms  of  intellectual  life,  but  interest  is  necessary 
for  attention.  There  is  no  way  to  make  progress,  or  suc- 
ceed in  the  schoolroom  without  them.  Though  it  is  a  fact 
that  interest  and  attention  are  both  aspects  of  one  mental 
fact,  namely,  acquisition.  Of  the  two,  however,  interest  is 
by  far  the  more  important  in  educational  matters.  The  fact 
is,  attention  is  impossible  as  a  continuous  act  without  in- 
terest. Will  may,  to  be  sure,  direct  the  mind  to  some  object 
or  person,  or  the  performance  of  some  act  and  it  can  do  this 
for  an  indefinite  number  of  times.  But  we  are  referring  to 
the  direct  continued  activity  of  the  mind  and  as  far  as  it  is 
concerned  the  will  cannot  control  or  influence  the  prolonging 
of  its  activity.  The  efforts  of  the  will  begin  and  end  with 
directing  the  mind.  Unless  the  mind  once  it  is  directed  to 
some  object  (end)  is  held  there  by  some  power  inherent  in 
the  object,  that  is,  unless  some  interest  in  the  object  is 
aroused  in  the  mind  by  that  object  when  the  mind  is  directed 
to  it  which  holds  it  and  stimulates  it  to  action,  there  is  and 
can  never  be  by  the  very  nature  of  the  case  any  conscious  act 
of  knowing  as  such.  Fortunately  for  us  all  in  this  state  of 
affairs  the  matter  of  interests  is  to  a  great  extent  looked 
after  by  nature,  though  in  education  the  interests  of  nature 
must  often  be  supplanted  or  aided  by  those  of  nurture  (arti- 
fice). There  are  then  two  kinds  of  interests,  the  native  and 
the  acquired  interests.  Of  the  two,  for  civilized  man,  the 
acquired  are  perhaps  the  more  important.  Especially  is  this 
true  in  the  case  of  those  minds  who  believe  that  nature  is 
imperfect,  that  art  by  surpassing  nature  improves  upon  it 
and  that  advancement  is  from  the  imperfect  to  the  perfect, 
from  nature  to  God.  The  native  interests  are  primary  and 
form  the  substratum,  the  stock  in  trade  upon  which  the 
business  of  the  acquired  interests  is  aroused  and  developed. 
Just  as  the  race  has  passed  in  its  life  history  from  the  na- 
tive interests  to  the  acquired  interests  (if  we  are  to  accept 
Haeckel's  law  of  phylogenesis)  so  the  individual  passes  in  his 
own  life  history  from  the  native  interests  to  the  acquired  in- 
terests. Just  as  in  the  early  racial  experience  native  interests 
were  primary  and  ruled  mental  processes,  so  in  the  early  in- 
dividual experience  native  interests  control  mental  activity, 


324  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

so  also  in  the  history  of  the  race  and  individual,  acquired 
interests  rule  even  at  times  to  the  complete  exclusion  of  na- 
tive interests.  The  younger  the  child  the  more  will  his  mental 
activity  be  due  to  native  interests  while  the  older  the  person 
the  more  do  acquired  interests  govern  his  mental  conduct. 
The  native  interests  upon  which  as  a  foundation  in  education 
the  teacher  aims  to  build  are  the  interests  in  movement,  in 
novelty,  in  color,  in  living  things  and  later  on  in  life,  in  sex 
matters  and  finally  in  human  affairs.  When  the  child  comes 
to  the  teacher  his  native  interests  are  already  pretty  well 
determined  for  him,  both  by  his  family  and  individual  ex- 
periences, those  that  are  prenatal  as  well  as  those  that  are 
post  natal.  Every  individual  has  his  own  native  interests 
stamped  into  his  psychical  being  when  he  is  born,  either  in 
actuality  or  in  a  state  of  potentiality.  These  are  determined 
by  his  ancestral  experiences  now  become  structural  and  trans- 
missible by  heredity.  To  these  interests  are  added  through- 
out life  those  interests  created  for  him  by  his  own  individual 
experiences.  These  are  constant  within  certain  limits  for  all 
human  beings.     Beyond  these  limits  they  vary  infinitely. 

Here  is  the  problem  of  the  teacher  to  find  out  what  are 
these  variable  quantities  (interests)  in  each  pupil  and  use 
them  as  a  basis  for  his  instruction.  He  must,  of  course, 
judge  them  when  found,  cultivate  the  good,  divert  those  that 
are  capable  of  becoming  good  and  root  out  those  that  have 
too  much  of  the  evil  in  them  to  be  of  service  in  the  classroom 
work.  Since  the  end  of  civilization  is  often  against  nature 
many  things  which  tend  to  civilize  man  will  have  no  direct 
interest  for  the  child.  The  burden  for  the  teacher  here  is 
to  connect  the  uninteresting  to  that  which  is  by  nature  in- 
teresting until  some  interest  is  cultivated  in  it.  In  this  the 
principle  of  association  is  the  key  that  opens  the  door  to 
the  soul  of  the  child.  Objects  not  interesting  in  themselves 
may  become  interesting  through  association  with  objects  that 
already  have  in  them  intrinsic  interests  either  native  or  ac- 
quired. Apart  from  those  native  things  of  interest  to  us 
all,  we  possess  an  interest  in  things  which  experience  has 
proved  give  us  pleasure.  This  is  probably  because  of  the 
close  and   fundamental   association   of  objects   of  pleasure 


Psychologic  Processes  m  Education  325 

with  the  maintenance  of  life.  "  Pleasure  promotes  and  ex- 
pands life,  pain  contracts  and  annuls  life."  Herbert 
Spencer  wrote  "  Every  laugh  extends  life,  every  tear  shortens 
it."  We  are  directly  interested  in,  and  our  interests  may  be 
aroused  by  objects  of  bodily  welfare,  objects  of  familiarity 
in  person  or  place,  objects  that  have  been  related  to  us  in 
the  past  or  that  we  know  are  to  be  related  to  us  in  the  future 
(providing  we  can  be  made  to  see  and  feel  in  some  degree 
the  extent  to  which  they  will  affect  us  and  the  result  that 
this  relation  will  have  upon  us).  We  are  also  naturally  and 
artificially  interested  in  objects  that  contribute  to  our  in- 
tellectual growth. 

Here  is  a  whole  category  of  means  of  arousing  interest  in 
the  pupils  in  the  classroom  work  and  of  holding  their  atten- 
tion for  varying  periods  of  time.  A  teacher  acquainted  with 
them  has  endless  means  at  his  command  to  arouse  interest 
and  hold  the  attention  of  his  pupil.  All  children,  even  the 
dullest  drones,  have  living  interests  in  school  and  its  proc- 
esses as  well  as  outside  of  the  school  and  its  processes.  If 
the  teacher  will  persistently  seek  them  and  bring  them  to 
bear  in  the  work  of  the  school  he  will  see  new  effects  wrought 
as  if  by  a  magic  wand.  Special  attention  is  called  to  that 
group  of  interests  centered  in  objects  of  intellectual  growth. 
Children  can  all  be  interested  to  more  or  less  extent  in  things 
they  know  and  can  do  well.  To  what  extent  they  sow  this 
interest  and  the  length  of  the  period  during  which  it  is  main- 
tained will  depend  upon  the  way  in  which  the  teacher  handles 
the  pupil  and  the  subject  matter.  This  interest  may  be  used 
by  the  teacher  until  others  are  found  and  then  they  all  may 
be  combined  according  to  the  ability  and  enthusiasm  of  the 
teacher  and  made  the  powerful  instrument  in  education  that 
they  are  intended  to  be. 

Attention.  As  to  the  kinds  of  attention,  in  common  ver- 
nacular we  speak  of  close  attention,  absorbed  attention  and 
rapt  attention.  From  another  viewpoint  these  may  be 
regarded  as  the  degrees  of  attention.  In  scientific  circles, 
especially  in  professional  literature  on  the  subject  we  are 
accustomed  to  the  terms  voluntary  and  involuntary  atten- 
tion, to  which  it  is  deemed  necessary  for  the  nature  of  the 


Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

treatment  here  to  add  expectant  attention.  Attention  may 
vary  in  extent,  intent,  duration,  range  and  degree.  The 
question  of  the  number  of  things  to  which  the  mind  can  at- 
tend at  one  time  arises  at  this  point.  But  we  pass  the  dis- 
cussion as  irrelevant  here  and  delegate  the  determination  of 
it  to  the  field  of  psychology.  As  far  as  the  art  of  teaching 
is  concerned  experience  has  taught  that  in  dealing  with  child 
mind  in  connection  with  the  facts  of  the  lesson  it  is  at  least 
safest  and  best  if  not  essential  that  we  treat  the  mind  with 
the  assumption  that  it  cannot  successfully  attend  to  more 
than  one  thing  at  a  time.  The  distraction  of  referring  or 
perhaps  better  recurring  constantly  from  one  line  of  thought 
to  another  together  with  the  amount  of  energy  thus  steadily 
used,  soon  tells  upon  the  general  vitality  of  the  child  by 
using  up  very  rapidly  all  of  his  available  supply  of  energy. 
Not  only  has  experience  in  the  schoolroom  thus  solved  the 
problem  but  it  has  also  proved  that  only  by  constantly  re- 
curring to  the  same  thing  from  day  to  day  by  way  of  repeti- 
tion as  in  review  can  the  child  be  gotten  to  retain  the  most 
essential  facts  of  the  lesson.  Pedagogy  has  for  a  long  time 
been  convinced  also  that  not  only  must  the  young  mind  not 
work  for  too  long  a  spell  at  a  time,  too  intensively  nor  too 
extensively,  but  that  the  range  in  study  must  be  strictly  lim- 
ited to  one  thing  at  a  time  and  indeed  in  most  cases  to 
only  one  phase  of  that  subject  at  a  time.  Mental  energy 
varies  in  intensity  in  direct  proportion  to  its  extensity,  even 
as  does  physical  energy.  Again  attention  requires  a  large 
amount  of  energy  and  is  conditioned  by  that  preexisting  al- 
ready in  the  mind,  one's  expectations  and  one's  needs  in  the 
premises. 

Furthermore,  much  of  the  limited  energy  in  the  child  avail- 
able for  the  work  of  the  recitation  is  used  in  those  processes 
not  directly  mental  but  merely  physical  such  as  in  the  nerve 
processes  involved  in  the  action  of  the  visual,  auditory  tactile 
and  other  senses  before  the  actual  mental  processes  depend- 
ent upon  this  (the  sense  material)  are  really  started.  The 
motor  processes  and  adjustment  incident  in  moving  about 
the  schoolroom  for  the  various  exercises  and  those  incident 
in  bringing  the  various  sense  organs  directly  into  contact 


Psychologic  Processes  in  Education  327 

with  the  stimuli,  also  tend  to  exhaust  the  child's  energy. 
These  latter  are  evident  particularly  in  such  movements  as 
the  turning  or  inclining  of  the  head  "  to  catch  a  sound,"  of 
the  eye  to  see  an  object,  and  of  the  hands  to  touch  objects. 
Poor  light,  objects  that  are  distant  or  that  by  their  color 
absorb  too  much  light,  noises  that  are  distracting,  teachers' 
voices  that  are  too  loud  or  too  low,  all  contribute  in  this 
way  to  the  useless  dissipation  of  the  child's  energy.  It  is 
a  well  conceded  fact  that  physiologically  the  giving  of  con- 
tinued attention  is  attended  at  times  by  severe  muscular 
tension,  especially  where  the  act  is  new  or  difficult  and  when 
this  form  of  the  strain  is  absent  the  excitation  is  brought 
into  its  own  by  severe  inhibition  of  other  forms  of  excitation 
striving  to  gain  expression  in  the  present  state  of  conscious- 
ness. Tests  having  the  warrant  of  highly  developed  scien- 
tific methods  in  the  laboratory  and  outside  have  proved  be- 
}ond  a  question  of  reasonable  doubt  that  physiologically 
under  the  strain  of  fatigue,  disease  and  over  stimulation  such 
as  nervous  excitement  or  cortical  center  excitement  and  a 
superfluous  flow  of  blood  either  to  or  from  the  brain,  the 
power  of  attention  is  reduced  and  mental  activity  either  is 
reduced  thereby  or  else  is  made  practically  impossible.  The 
other  senses  also  use  up  some  of  the  child's  energy  in  their 
activity  but  as  these  are  the  senses  particularly  active  in 
the  educative  processes,  these  only  are  mentioned  here. 

The  justification  in  the  demand  that  the  energy  of  the 
child  be  conserved  is  easily  seen.  The  physical  environment 
must  offer  the  maximum  comfort,  the  manner  of  the  teacher 
must  be  such  as  to  promote  the  greatest  mental  ease,  the 
physical  movements  of  the  child  must  be  reduced  to  a  min- 
imum in  their  demands  upon  the  energy  of  the  child  and  the 
daily  tasks  of  the  schoolroom  should  not  be  so  long  as  to 
produce  strain  or  so-called  restlessness  in  order  that  the 
conservation  of  the  child's  energy  may  continue  at  a  max- 
imum. In  the  fact  that  attention  is  conditioned  by  pre- 
existing ideas,  expectations  and  needs  the  justification  of 
the  form  and  nature  of  the  assignment,  the  study  period  and 
the  recitation,  and  most  especially  of  the  first  and  last  is 
clearly  evident. 


328  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

The  first  step  in  the  educative  process  is  to  see  what  is 
the  mental  content  of  the  child,  both  when  he  enters  school 
and  at  the  beginning  of  each  recitation  and  in  review.  This 
done  the  logical  place  of  beginning  has  been  found.  Too 
often  in  the  passing  of  pupils  from  one  grade  and  teacher  to 
another  grade  and  teacher,  the  teacher  assumes  that  cer- 
tain work  has  been  done  and  at  once  proceeds  to  build  upon 
this  as  found  for  his  part  of  the  educational  structure  to  be 
built  up  out  of  the  mind  of  the  child,  without  seeking  to  find 
out  exactly  how  much  of,  and  how  well  the  educational 
foundation  and  superstructure  has  been  laid  down  at  the 
time  when  the  pupil  was  turned  over  into  his  hands.  The 
new  ideas  to  be  of  practical  utility  must  be  well  connected 
with  the  ideas  pre-existing  in  the  child's  mind.  This  being 
done  the  child  can  be  led  readily  up  the  road  of  knowledge 
that  he  has  thus  far  traveled  and  shown  where  he  stands 
at  the  present  recitation  period  and  made  to  await  with 
pleasure  and  anticipation  the  next  step,  having  at  the  same 
time  been  shown  his  immediate  needs  and  to  what  extent  the 
facts  of  this  lesson  will  contribute  to  the  supplying  of  these 
needs.  Attention  by  concentrating  and  directing  energy 
makes  impressions  otherwise  shallow,  deep  and  paths  of  dis- 
charge otherwise  impervious  to  more  feeble  discharges  per- 
manent and  easily  accessible,  thereby  increasing  the  con- 
scious intensity,  the  completeness  and  the  definiteness  of  the 
sensation  by  focusing  it.  Change,  newness,  novelty,  sur- 
prise, curiosity,  contrast,  strangeness,  familiarity  and  often- 
times discipline  all  contribute  to  the  conscious  intensity  of 
the  discharge  of  mental  energy,  the  completeness  and 
definiteness  of  the  sensation  or  its  consequent  image.  In 
fact  these  are  the  constant  attendants  upon  attention. 
Psychically  attention  is  to  a  high  degree  in  older  and  almost 
entirely  in  the  younger  dependent  upon  the  question  of  likes 
and  dislikes.  This  is  an  important  fact  for  the  teacher  to 
get  acquainted  with  early  in  his  educational  work.  The  ef- 
fect of  the  pleasure-pain  economy  is  too  near  upon  the  young 
racially  and  the  young  individually  to  permit  his  very  distant 
removal  from  its  influence.     This  makes  the  proposition  of 


Psychologic  Processes  in  Education  3£9 

pleasurable  tasks  for  the  school  child,  especially  in  the  lower 
grades,  paramount. 

Voluntary,  Involuntary  and  Expectant  Attention.  One  or 
two  authors  attempt  to  name  and  justify  another  kind  of 
attention  namely  that  of  indifferent  or  non-voluntary  atten- 
tion in  addition  to  the  three  given  above.  Allowing  for  this 
discussion  that  such  a  form  of  attention  exists,  though  the 
settlement  of  it  belongs  to  the  field  of  psychology,  its  peda- 
gogical value  is  too  small  to  justify  its  discussion  here.  The 
aim  of  all  educative  processes  is  to  attain  in  the  child  the  state 
of  involuntary  attention,  hence  the  prime  importance  of  the 
teacher's  knowing  the  physiological  and  psychological  phases 
of  attention,  the  attendants  of  attention  both  physical  and 
physiological  and  the  part  they  play  in  the  success  of  the 
daily  routine  of  the  school.  There  are  from  the  pedagogical 
viewpoint  two  serious  objections  to  voluntary  attention. 
One  is  that  the  will  power  necessary  to  maintain  it  is  usually 
not  well  developed  in  the  child  and  not  a  great  advance  is 
made  along  this  line  even  by  the  time  the  child  is  ready  to 
leave  the  public  schools  as  a  finished  product.  In  the  second 
place,  all  that  will  power  can  do,  even  assuming  now  that  it 
be  sufficiently  developed,  is  to  direct  and  redirect  the  mind  to 
a  given  thing,  fact  or  circumstance.  Once  this  is  done  will 
has  done  its  best.  From  that  point  on  the  mind  if  it  works  at 
all  must  operate  entirely  under  the  control  of  its  predomi- 
nating interests.  It  might  be  added  incidentally  that  be- 
cause of  this  very  fact,  it  is  seriously  questioned  by  many 
authorities  as  to  whether  or  not  as  a  process  of  mind,  volun- 
tary attention  can  really  exist.  Sure  it  is  however,  that 
involuntary  attention  secured  by  allied  powerful  interests  in 
the  teacher,  the  schoolroom  and  its  work  is  the  goal  desired 
and  for  which  the  educational  forces  are  expending  their 
efforts  as  the  most  important  thing  that  the  school  can  ac- 
complish in  pushing  its  work.  Knowledge  and  existence  are 
so  closely  allied  in  the  natural  order  of  things  that  whatever 
is  a  surprise  is  always  somewhat  of  a  shock  to  the  organism. 
This  shock  may  be  a  pleasant  surprise  or  an  unpleasant  sur- 
prise. The  educative  process  is  normally  filled  with  pleasant 
surprise. 


Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

Expectant  Attention.  The  anticipation  of  pleasure  is 
one  of  the  greatest  joys  of  the  human  soul.  It  is  upon  this 
that  the  principle  of  expectant  attention  rests.  The  child's 
mind  is  prepared  for  what  is  going  to  happen.  The  mind  is 
put  into  the  state  most  appropriate  for  its  reception,  at  the 
appointed  time  the  expected  comes  forth  and  is  received  by 
the  waiting.  This  is  the  supreme  test,  the  supreme  moment  of 
teaching.  In  the  hand  of  the  skillful  and  enthusiastic 
teacher  it  is  of  almost  unlimited  value  and  power  in  the 
schoolroom  processes.  It  should  be  sought  after  by  the 
teacher  and  developed  in  the  child  from  the  very  beginning 
of  the  school  life  until  the  close. 

A  high  form  of  expectant  attention  is  evident  in  the  athletic 
and  play  contests  about  the  school.  Here  the  contestants 
in  their  respective  positions  each  determined  to  do  his  best 
and  to  take  every  fair  advantage  of  his  opponent,  and  each 
keyed  up  to  the  highest  pitch  of  nervous  tension  awaits  the 
judge's  voice,  the  discharge  of  the  referee's  pistol  or  the  blow 
of  his  whistle  to  set  into  play  every  bit  of  energy  pent  up  in 
the  body.  That  nervous  discharges  of  energy  in  this  way 
and  under  these  circumstances  are  strong  and  force  paths  of 
discharge  that  are  deep  and  lasting  goes  without  saying. 
Questions  asked  and  answered  under  such  circumstances  of 
strain  and  tension  are  both  definite  and  lasting  in  their  effects. 
It  has  proved  in  practice  to  be  a  very  effective  form  of  atten- 
tion for  the  teacher  in  the  work  of  the  recitation,  but  like 
every  other  good  thing  must  not  be  worked  overtime.  Nor 
must  the  tension  excited  be  too  great,  if  the  best  results  are 
to  be  gained  without  having  their  accompanying  evils  on  hand 
to  plague  one. 

Memory.  On  the  one  hand  physiologically  memory  repre- 
sents the  paths  of  discharge  in  the  plastic  matter  become  per- 
manent by  constant  discharge  along  the  same  route.  On  the 
other  hand  it  represents  also  the  groups  of  brain  cells  formed 
under  the  control  of  molecular  force  set  in  action  by  nerve 
disturbances  in  various  parts  of  the  body  and  made  more  or 
less  permanent  by  persistent  relations  incited  directly 
through  renewed  stimulations  from  the  same  or  connected 


Psychologic  Processes  m  Education  331 

paths  of  discharge.  Memory  is  strongest  in  the  young  be- 
cause of  the  plasticity  of  the  young  brain  and  the  larger 
amount  of  available  energy  and  the  impressibility  of  the  nerve 
and  brain  substance  so  pliant  in  the  child  and  yet  unformed 
into  stable  relations  and  molecular  groups.  It  is  at  its  best 
in  the  early  part  of  the  day  because  of  the  larger  amount  of 
energy  in  the  body  available  for  the  bodily  and  mental  func- 
tions which  serves  at  that  time  to  intensify  the  amount  dis- 
charged and  the  force  of  it.  Memory  also  varies  according 
to  the  time  that  has  elapsed  since  the  recording  of  the  dis- 
charge among  the  molecules  of  the  brain  and  higher  centers 
and  is  determined  chiefly  by  the  time  that  has  elapsed  since 
the  impression  and  the  degree  of  the  completeness  and  dis- 
tinctness of  the  image  formed.  Loss  of  memory  may  come 
with  disease,  with  weariness  or  with  age,  or  it  may  be  produced 
by  the  continued  or  excessive  use  of  intoxicants  and  certain 
highly  exciting  drugs,  or  by  direct  injury  to  the  brain.  Not 
only  does  memory  vary  through  the  successive  age  periods, 
but  it  varies  greatly  in  different  individuals.  We  speak  often 
of  the  naturally  dull  boy  and  of  his  counterpart  the  naturally 
bright  boy.  Above,  attention  was  called  to  the  fact  that 
both  by  abnormal  and  normal  condition  some  organisms  are 
constantly  in  a  state  of  high  nervous  tension  and  others  are 
correspondingly  in  a  state  of  low  nervous  tension.  In  the 
one  of  low  nervous  tension  impression  and  memory  will  be 
slow,  but  the  paths  of  discharge  once  formed  will  be  more  last- 
ing, while  in  the  case  of  those  of  high  tension  the  impressions 
and  memory  will  be  rapidly  gained  and  the  paths  of  dis- 
charge rapidly  formed  but  mostly  will  tend  to  be  less  lasting. 
But  where  they  are  both  rapid  and  of  sufficient  force  to  be 
lasting  the  resulting  mental  state  is  pleasing.  However,  such 
cases  of  combination  are  comparatively  rare.  Usually  those 
in  whose  structure  paths  of  discharge  are  readily  formed  have 
these  paths  destroyed  with  equal  facility.  Though  quick  to 
gain  knowledge  they  are  just  as  quick  to  forget  it.  Those 
who  remember  with  fulness  and  exactness  and  learn  equally 
quickly  are  rare  and  by  no  means  to  be  reckoned  with  as  the 
commonplace.     Also  in  wme  subjects  teachers  may  get  either 


Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

large  members  of  a  class,  or  even  whole  classes  whose  memory 
is  above  the  average  and  with  whom  good  results  are  attain- 
able with  comparatively  little  effort. 

A  Good  Memory.  Evidences  of  a  good  memory  may  be 
seen  in  aptitude  in  application,  firm  hold  on  that  which  is 
learned  and  a  consistent  readiness  in  recall.  Of  all  sense 
material  that  which  is  obtained  through  the  activity  of  the 
visual  sense  is  most  easily  recalled  and  next  to  this  the  ma- 
terial furnished  by  the  auditory  sense.  After  these  the 
order  in  which  the  other  senses  are  grouped  as  to  the  fulness 
of  the  material  they  furnish  is  given  differently  by  different 
authors.  Ordinarily,  however,  touch  is  generally  next  in 
importance.  However  poor  a  memory  the  child  may  pos- 
sess it  may  be  improved.  The  chief  method  to  develop  mem- 
ory in  the  schoolroom  is  by  exercises  in  acquisition  and 
practice  in  recalling  either  of  which  may  be  varied  in  any 
number  of  ways. 

Pedagogically,  there  are  several  facts  about  memory  that 
concern  us  here.  First  there  is  the  fact  that  the  degree  of 
perfection  of  memory  is  decidedly  affected  by  the  time  that 
has  elapsed  since  the  activity  of  the  mind  involved  had  been 
present  and  by  the  degree  of  completeness  and  distinctness 
of  the  image  originally  formed  during  this  activity.  Here 
is  the  psychological  justification  of  constant  reviews,  briefly 
daily,  and  more  extended  at  longer  intervals.  It  will  be 
necessary  that  all  class  explanations  and  introductory  work 
be  completely  and  distinctly  outlined.  Hasty  work  soon 
begets  its  own  condemnation,  while  work  that  is  unclear  or 
incomplete  is  also  to  be  seriously  condemned.  Make  haste 
slowly  will  apply  in  the  work  of  the  recitation  equally  well 
with  the  work  of  life.  The  justification  of  object  teaching 
and  the  value  of  maps,  charts  and  other  visible  forms  of 
demonstration,  including  written  work  at  the  board  and 
seat,  all  are  invaluable  because  the  images  they  form  in  and 
"the  impressions  they  make  on  the  mind  are  more  lasting; 
memory  of  them  endures  longest.  The  fact  that  fatigue  is  a 
prominent  cause  in  the  weakening  of  memory  and  memory 
work  sounds  a  word  of  warning  from  a  viewpoint  about  pro- 
longing the  school  work,  the  assignment,  the  recitation  and 


Psychologic  Processes  in  Education  333 

the  study  period  unduly.  Teachers  should  study  the  gen- 
eral impressibility  of  pupils,  whereupon  the  easily  impressible 
and  those  more  slow  of  impression  each  can  receive  his  due 
consideration  and  attention.  The  readily  impressible  is  the 
apt  student.  It  is  the  slowly  impressible  to  whom  the  at- 
tention of  the  teacher  must  be  chiefly  given.  They  should 
be  made  the  standard  of  work  in  so  far  as  a  regulative 
standard  is  followed. 

The  Kinds  of  Memory.  Here  as  in  the  kinds  of  attention 
there  is  a  variety  of  groups  of  classification.  However,  the 
one  which  is  adopted  here  as  of  most  use  to  the  nature  of 
this  treatment  is  that  of  logical  memory,  mechanical  memory 
and  verbal  memory.  Of  these  three  the  logical  memory  is 
the  most  valuable  to  the  intellectual  processes.  The  me- 
chanical stands  next,  while  the  lowest  in  the  series  is  the 
verbal  memory.  The  first  of  these,  the  logical  memory  gets 
and  retains  the  sense  of  the  thing  learned,  and  to  be  remem- 
bered; the  mechanical  gets  all  without  any  successful  at- 
tempt at  distinguishing  the  important  from  the  unimportant 
in  ideas ;  while  the  verbal  memory  merely  gets  the  words 
without  any  regard  for  the  thought  either  as  important  or 
unimportant.  Historically  the  progress  of  the  race  and 
the  individual  is  from  the  verbal  memory  to  the  logical 
memory.  The  struggle  of  the  teacher  is  to  get  the  pupils 
from  the  verbal  memory  to  the  logical  even  more  rapidly 
than  they  would  go  by  natural  processes.  The  mechanical 
memory  marks  an  intermediate  step.  Here  where  students 
do  learn  well  they  do  not  grasp  or  cannot  grasp  the  import- 
ant from  the  unimportant  in  the  lesson.  Here  the  assign- 
ment of  the  lesson  can  be  of  much  help.  It  should  aim  to 
remove  much  of  this  difficulty,  especially  where  outlines  are 
in  possession  of  the  pupils.  "Whatever  of  the  difficulty  the 
assignment  fails  to  remove,  the  explanations  of  the  words 
of  the  text  and  the  giving  of  carefully  prepared  study  ques- 
tions will  more  than  likely  dispose  of.  Too  much  care  and 
watchfulness  cannot  be  exercised  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
to  overcome  verbal  and  mechanical  memory  in  the  pupils. 
These  pupils  if  crowded  in  their  work  especially  will  often 
commit  passage  after  passage  of  a  given  lesson  without  any 


334*  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

adequate  conception  whatsoever  of  its  thought  content,  both 
that  in  the  thought  content  which  is  important  and  that 
which  is  unimportant.  So  adroit  are  such  pupils  that  they 
have  been  known  to  recite  their  lessons  clearly  and  often 
apparently  thoughtfully  until  some  careful  questioning  of 
the  teacher  or  some  slip  of  the  pupil  in  the  series  broke 
the  chain,  thereby  disclosing  the  fault.  The  confusion  that 
may  now  be  brought  out  will  soon  show  that  the  pupil  has 
no  understanding  of  the  thought  but  is  dependent  entirely 
upon  the  words.  If  the  missing  word  is  supplied,  at  once 
the  repeating  of  the  series  begins  and  is  carried  on  to  the 
end  without  difficult}7,  showing  just  where  the  trouble  is. 

A  good  method  of  testing  for  verbal  memory  is  by  giving 
appropriate  questions  on  the  sense  of  the  text  and  requiring 
the  pupils  to  find  explicit  answers  to  them.  Requiring  reci- 
tations in  the  child's  own  words  is  also  helpful,  as  is  the  re- 
quest to  define  words  and  explain  the  meaning  of  various 
passages  of  the  text.  For  convenience  along  this  line  text 
books  are  generally  divided  into  appropriate  parts  which 
are  adapted  to  the  principles  of  memory.  Each  of  these 
divisions  as  has  been  said  has  its  important  sentence  and  its 
unimportant.  These  divisions  are  usually  the  topic,  the 
paragraph,  the  verse,  the  page  or  the  chapter.  Because  the 
topic  is  most  generally  the  division  used  and  studied  the  im- 
portant sentence  in  the  paragraph  or  topic  is  called  the 
topic  sentence.  The  topic  or  one  or  more  topics  usually 
constitute  the  assignment.  Here  the  child  learns  the  order 
of  topics  and  the  discussion  of  each  and  is  prepared  to  go 
through  the  whole,  once  the  machine  (of  thought)  is  started. 
These  pupils  are  generally  all  lost  for  a  beginning  unless  the 
question  is  couched  in  the  words  of  the  book  or  is  such 
as  to  suggest  to  him  the  dirct  words  of  the  book.  Hence 
originality  in  questioning  is  a  practical  method  of  reducing 
verbal  and  mechanical  memory  and  particularly  verbal  mem- 
ory. 

Memory  Devices.  In  aiding  memory,  especially  logical 
memory  an  ingenious  teacher  can  make  many  devices.  Lit- 
tle rules  that  indicate  in  some  way  the  run  of  the  series  are 
quite  common.     These  in  the  lower  grades  the  teacher  may 


Psychologic  Processes  in  Education  335 

devise,  while  later  the  pupils  themselves  should  be  shown 
the  value  of  such  practice  and  taught  to  form  their  own  little 
methods  of  remembering.  One  of  these  chief  recommenda- 
tions of  logical  memory  is  that  it  can  be  reduced  to  such  a 
system,  while  the  fact  that  verbal  and  mechanical  memory 
cannot  be  so  reduced  will  serve  to  discredit  them  as  thought 
getting  and  thought  retaining  methods.  While  I  write,  the 
little  verse  for  remembering  the  number  of  days  in  the  vari- 
ous months  of  the  year  which  is  quite  common  comes  to  me. 
I  give  it  here  for  the  mere  suggestion  of  the  method. 

"  Thirty  days  hath  September,  April,  June  and  November, 
All  the  rest  have  thirty-one,  except  the  second  month  alone, 
AVhich  has  only  twenty-eight  in  fine,  until  leap  year  gives  it  twenty- 


In  music  the  use  of  the  word  B-E-A-D  to  denote  the  flats 
of  the  staff  as  they  succeed  each  other  in  the  scale  up  to 
four,  and  of  the  word  f-a-c-e  to  denote  the  sharps  cor- 
responding are  well  known  and  commonly  in  practice.  Many 
teachers  practice  this  system  with  more  or  less  success. 
The  fact  is,  so  well  recognized  is  the  merit  of  this  system 
that  it  has  been  adopted  by  the  school  and  named  the 
"  system  "  or  "  law  of  mnemonics."  Even  in  practical  life 
experience  has  shown  that  couplets  and  words  often  form 
chains  of  connection  in  series  that  by  the  power  of  sugges- 
tion enable  us  to  recall  the  thing  desired  in  the  series.  This 
principle  of  memory  has  succeeded  in  tiding  men  and  women 
of  the  world  through  important  crises  by  their  using  this 
power  of  suggestion  to  recall  that  which  they  wished. 

The  Laws  of  Memory.  There  are  several  practical  rules 
of  memory  known  as  "  laws  of  memory  "  which  while  they  are 
only  suggestive  are  of  considerable  value  to  the  teaching 
profession.  They  emphasize  in  a  new  way  much  of  that 
which  is  given  in  a  different  way  earlier  in  this  same  discus- 
sion. 

1.  The  Law  of  Repetition.  Repeat  often  the  things  you 
wish  the  pupils  to  remember. 

£.  The  Law  of  Use.  Strengthen  the  memory  by  constant 
use. 


336  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

3.  The  Law  of  Interest.  Connect  the  things  you  wish  the 
pupil  to  remember  with  those  things  in  which  he  has  native 
or  acquired  interests,  for  he  will  remember  better  those  things 
in  which  his  individual  interests  lie. 

4?.  The  Law  of  Attention.  Attend  well  to  the  things  you 
wish  the  pupils  to  remember. 

5.  The  Law  of  Understanding.  Have  the  child  get  a  clear 
and  full  understanding  of  the  things  you  wish  him  to  re- 
member. 

6.  The  Law  of  Association. 


1. 

By  Contrast. 

& 

By    Contiguity. 

.f3. 

By  Similarity. 

k 

By  Sign  and  thing  sig- 

nified. 

5. 

By  Cause  and  effect. 

6. 

By    the    whole    and    the 

part. 

Entangle  the  things  you  wish  the  pupils  to  remember 
in  a  net  of  as  many  logical  associations  as  possible. 

Speaking  of  memory,  its  development  and  practical  value 
to  the  teacher,  William  James  says :  "  Of  two  men  with  the 
same  outward  experience,  the  one  who  thinks  over  his  experi- 
ences most  and  weaves  them  into  the  most  S3^stematic  rela- 
tions with  each  other  will  be  the  one  with  the  best  memory." 
Improvement  (in  memory)  is  due  to  the  way  in  which  the 
things  in  question  are  woven  into  associations  with  each  in 
the  mind.  From  a  pedagogical  viewpoint  these  laws  of  mem- 
ory speak  for  themselves.  They  need  only  be  applied  for 
the  teacher  to  see  their  efficacy  in  getting  results. 

Imagination.  The  laws  of  association  might  with  equal 
justification  have  come  under  the  head  of  memory  and  many 
authors  treat  them  under  this  head.  For  personal  reasons, 
however,  I  wish  to  follow  other  leads  and  consider  them  under 
the  subject  of  imagination.  Imagination  works  upon  the 
material  furnished  through  the  senses  and  is  to  that  extent 
identical  with  memory.  But  unlike  memory  besides  repro- 
ducing the  sense  material  it  may  use  it  by  analysing  and 
recombining  it  according  to  laws  inherent  in  itself.     Thus 


Psychologic  Processes  in  Education  381 

there  are  two  kinds  of  imagination  often  called  respectively 
the  reproductive  and  constructive  imagination.  Some  au- 
thors adapt  a  parallel  division,  namely,  representative  and 
creative  imagination.  There  are  other  systems  of  division 
such  as  the  scientific,  artistic  and  ethical  imagination  and 
the  associative,  penetrative  and  contemplative  imagination. 
For  these,  however,  there  is  no  demand  here.  Hence  for  uni- 
formity it  is  better  to  employ  here  the  classical  division  of 
the  imagination  into  the  representative  or  reproductive  and 
creative  imagination.  It  is  the  creative  imagination  that 
is  the  goal  of  education.  To  the  activity  of  this  faculty 
the  world  owes  its  progress  in  both  material  and  theoretical 
civilization.  Creative  imagination  creates  by  recombining 
the  old  images  or  parts  of  images  into  new  forms.  Its  value 
lies  in  the  fact  that  things  being  understood  in  the  relation 
of  the  part  to  the  whole  and  vice  versa  enable  not  only  suc- 
cessful disintegration  of  the  whole  into  its  component  parts, 
but  also  its  reassemblage  into  a  new  whole  made  out  of  con- 
stituent parts  of  this  whole  either  alone  or  in  combination 
with  the  parts  of  other  disintegrated  thought  wholes.  Be- 
sides the  native  "  psychophysical  disposition  "  to  revive  the 
past  "  inherent  "  in  the  mind,  creative  imagination  depends 
for  its  force  and  material  on  certain  conditions  of  reproduc- 
tion such  as  depth  of  impression  of  the  original  image, 
quantity  of  sense  material,  interest  excited  and  the  resulting 
closeness  of  attention,  power  of  the  suggesting  image  and 
the  frequency  of  the  occurrence  of  the  stimulation  for  the 
original  impression. 

While  it  is  seen  by  the  foregoing  that  the  mind  has  a 
native  tendency  to  form  images,  teachers  may  greatly  aug- 
ment this  power  by  seeing  to  it  that  the  facts  of  the  lesson 
are  "  driven  completely  home,"  that  where  possible  the  facts 
of  the  lesson  are  supplemented  by  much  illustrative  work 
both  with  objects,  maps  and  board  work.  The  fact  in  this 
is  that  the  more  the  senses  are  aroused  by  the  presentation 
through  the  same  senses  or  different  senses  the  deeper  and 
more  lasting  become  the  paths  of  discharge  formed  by  them 
and  the  more  there  is  in  the  thought  content  to  be  disin- 
tegrated,   analyzed    and    created    into    new    mental    forms. 


338  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

Some  things  also  are  by  nature  more  suggestive  than  others 
by  having  stronger  or  more  numerous  connections.  When 
these  are  employed  the  images  formed  are  more  enduring  and 
more  perfect.  The  stimuli  that  may  be  used  to  arouse 
image  formation  are  either  psychical,  physical  or  physio- 
logical. Chief  among  the  psychical  stimuli  are  the  so-called 
after  sensations  which  cause  us  to  hear  long  after  the  real 
audible  sound  has  died  away,  such  as  when  pieces  of  music 
keep  ringing  in  our  ears  or  certain  visible  experiences  are 
constantly  before  the  eyes  long  after  the  actual  experiences 
are  past.  In  this  way  people  and  objects,  places  and  events 
will  suddenly  return  to  one  after  years  have  elapsed  since 
the  original  sense  impression  was  experienced.  Flow  of 
blood  into  or  from  various  parts  of  the  body  both  in  health 
and  disease  causes  image  formation.  The  dreams  caused  by 
a  full  stomach  are  current  examples  of  this.  The  delirium 
tremens  and  hallucination  of  the  drunkard  are  probably 
greatly  augmented  by  the  over  rapid  cell  destruction  in  the 
bodily  metabolism  induced  by  the  alcohol.  Likewise  the 
various  forms  of  mania  evident  in  fevers  &re  due  to  the  rapid 
cell  destruction  and  presence  in  the  body  as  a  foreign  sub- 
stance stimulating  certain  forms  of  nervous  and  cortical 
center  action. 

Imagination  Subjects.  Many  subjects  in  the  course  of 
study  are  very  appropriate  for  developing  the  power  of 
imagination.  Stories  are  the  most  commonly  used  subjects 
for  cultivating  the  imagination.  They  may  be  either  told 
or  read  and  the  children  may  be  made  to  reproduce  them 
or  expand  them  as  they  see  fit.  Child  imagination  is  particu- 
larly apt  with  these.  Poetry  is  particularly  appropriate 
for  child  imagination  as  is  nature  study,  geography,  music 
and  drawing.  History  should  head  this  list  because  of  its 
relation  to  and  dependence  upon  stories.  More  recently  with 
the  spread  of  physical  education  games  have  been  included 
in  the  courses  and  have  become  a  fruitful  source  for  develop- 
ing the  imagination.  This  form  of  mental  exercise  has  the 
extra  virtue  of  being  more  assuredly  pleasing  than  some  of 
the  other  subjects  suggested. 

The  Laws  of  Association.     More  important  than  the  sub- 


Psychologic  Processes  in  Education  339 

jects  that  are  particularly  appropriate  for  the  development 
of  the  imagination  are  the  laws  by  which  the  images  are 
recalled  for  the  processes  of  analysis  and  recombination. 
These  are  the  laws  of  association.  The  first  three  of  these 
laws  are  given  us  by  Aristotle.  They  are  the  laws  of  singu- 
larity, contrast  and  contiguity.  To  these  Hobbes  and  Hume 
added  the  laws  of  means  and  ends,  cause  and  effect,  sign  and 
thing  signified  and  objects  and  their  qualities.  From  the 
law  of  similarity  it  is  learned  that  there  is  a  strong  tendency 
of  the  mind  when  one  image  is  presented  to  it  of  recalling 
an  image  or  images  closely  resembling  the  one  presented. 
By  the  law  of  contiguity  things  closely  associated  in  time 
and  space  and  experienced  in  this  association  generally  re- 
tain in  the  mental  life  a  like  closeness  of  association,  the  one 
serving  as  a  means  always  of  recalling  the  other  and  doing 
so  not  by  will  but  by  the  very  nature  of  this  association  in 
the  past  experience  of  the  individual.  The  like  is  true  in 
the  relation  of  things  opposite  in  their  nature  as  experienced, 
also  of  things  experienced  in  the  relation  of  means  to  ends, 
of  causes  to  effects,  etc. 

The  value  of  association  in  the  schoolroom  is  in  using  ma- 
terial and  questions  that  are  closely  connected  with  the  child's 
experience  in  and  out  of  school  and  of  connecting  these  with 
the  facts  of  the  lesson.  They  thus  become  a  part  of  the 
child's  real  life  and  respond  to  the  train  of  thought  that 
may  be  set  in  motion  by  the  teacher's  questions.  Imagina- 
tion is  not  so  much  for  use  in  the  work  of  the  schoolroom 
as  to  be  developed  there  for  use  in  after  life  of  the  pupil. 
However,  both  in  the  assignment,  the  study  period  and  the 
recitation  the  facts  of  the  lesson  may  be  thoroughly  grasped 
through  the  proper  formation  of  images,  where  other  means 
fail.  Images  being  for  use  in  the  absence  of  the  direct  ob- 
ject are  fainter  and  less  vivid  than  the  objects  themselves. 
This  makes  it  necessary  that  the  original  impression  be  full 
and  clear.  To  this  end  therefore  all  of  the  efforts  of  the 
teacher  should  be  directed.  Judgments  and  ihe  combination 
of  judgments  (reasoning)  depend  to  a  great  extent  for  their 
validity  in  the  correctness  of  the  image  formed.  Judgments 
cannot  be  depended  upon  where  the  images  upon  which  they 


840  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

are  based  were  either  incomplete  originally  or  have  by  long 
disuse  and  non-renewal  lost  their  caste  of  detail. 

This  is  a  brief  survey  of  psychology  as  it  is  directly  re- 
lated to  teaching.  Much  more  might  have  been  added  and 
more  detail  included  in  that  which  was  given  but  the  scope 
of  the  work  forbade  the  undertaking  of  either. 

REFERENCE  READING 

"Attention  and   Interest"  by  Arnold,  the  whole  work  but  especially 

Chapters  IX  and  X. 
Compayre's  "The   Intellectual  and  Moral  Development  of  the  Child." 

Chaps.  VI.  VII,  VIII. 
Kay's  "  Memory,  What  It  Is  and  How  to  Improve  It"     Chaps.  V,  VII, 

VIII,  IX. 
Taylor's  "  The  Study  of  the  Child."    Chap.  XVI. 
Dexter  &  Garlick's  "  Psychology  in  the  Schoolroom."     Chaps.  Ill,  VIII, 

IX. 
Colvin's  "The  Learning  Process."    Chaps.  VII,  VIII,  XI,  XII,  XVII, 

XIX. 
Morgan's  "  Psychology  for  Teachers."    Chap.  III. 

Baldwin's  "  Psychology  Applied  to  Art  of  Teaching."    Chaps.  VIII,  X. 
Home's  "Psychological  Principles  of  Education."     Chaps.  X,  XI. 
Bolton's  "Principles  of  Education."     Chaps.  XVIII,  XIX. 
Miinsterberg's    "Psychology    and   the   Teacher,"    XVI,   XVII,   XVIII, 

XIX. 


CHAPTER  XV 
SUBSIDIARY  PHASES  OF  EDUCATION 

Habits  —  Morals  —  Manners  —  Religion  —  Patriotism 

Under  the  head  "  Subsidiary  Phases  of  Education  "  are  in- 
cluded the  subjects  habits,  morals,  manners,  religion  and 
patriotism.  By  the  use  of  the  term  subsidiary  education 
it  is  not  intended  to  convey  the  idea  that  these  forms  of  edu- 
cation are  unimportant,  but  merely  that  they  have  run  so 
prominently  through  the  discussion  of  the  other  phases  of 
educational  processes  that  there  is  but  little  left  of  a  special 
nature  to  be  said  about  them  in  addition.  Hence  from  the 
viewpoint  of  extended  special  treatment  they  are  regarded 
as  subsidiary.  From  another  viewpoint  these  phases  of 
education  are  subsidiary  for  the  school  in  that  it  is  not 
necessary  to  delegate  this  work  to  the  school  as  such,  but  it 
is  customary,  and  properly  so,  to  leave  much,  if  not  all  of 
such  education,  to  the  home,  the  church  and  to  some  extent 
to  the  state.  These  have  been  and  should  still  continue  to 
do  such  work  more  and  more  effectually  than  the  school. 
The  nature  of  the  development  of  habits,  of  morals,  of  man- 
ners and  in  general  of  patriotism  is  such  that  the  school  can- 
not get  the  results  desirable  on  the  scale  desirable  without 
very  close  cooperation  of  the  other  educational  agencies  as 
it  can  in  the  educational  processes  pure  and  simple.  Then, 
too,  the  code  of  a  system  of  subsidiary  educational  processes 
is  not  well  determined  and  because  of  the  breadth  of  the  field 
and  the  freedom  allowed  for  the  play  of  individuality  of 
views,  cannot  be  as  well  determined  as  the  work  that  is  for- 
mally educational.  So  prevalent  is  the  recognition  of  in- 
dividual rights  in  these  premises  that  it  is  the  general  custom 
everywhere  to  give  way  to  and  respect  individual  caprice 
in  these  matters  of  education  on  the  argument  that  respon- 
sibility here  is  mostly  individual  and  not  aggregate  as  are 


34$  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

also  results.  At  present,  however,  the  trend  is  everywhere 
toward  more  supervision  and  direction  of  these  forms  of 
education.  This  is  due  chiefly  to  the  view  coming  into  promi- 
nence that  after  all  these  things  are  as  much  for  the  aggre- 
gate welfare  as  for  the  individual  welfare.  As  this  view 
grows  in  strength  the  attention  of  those  charged  with  the 
responsibility  of  the  school  education  will  be  turned  in  this 
direction  and  there  will,  as  a  result,  be  more  direct  study 
given  to  these  phases  of  education  in  the  regular  course  of 
study  and  daily  program  until  they  will  become  as  promi- 
nent in  the  school  processes  and  as  thoroughly  developed, 
understood  and  systematically  regulated  and  graded  as  any 
of  the  purely  literary  or  intellectual  work  of  the  school. 
The  tendency  at  present  is  strongly  in  this  direction  both  in 
thought  and  action  and  much  already  has  been  done  in  re- 
cent years. 

I.  Habit.  Fundamentally  habit  is  closely  akin  to  instinct. 
In  fact  historically  it  is  the  precursor  of  instinct.  Through 
centuries  of  practice  by  successive  generations  of  organism 
habits  of  action  so  modify  organic  structure  as  to  become 
the  physical  basis  of  the  various  instructive  actions.  Habits 
therefore  represent  individual  experience,  while  instincts  rep- 
resent the  cumulative  effects  of  racial  experience.  While 
habits  are  by  some  called  acquired  instincts  it  seems  from 
the  above  relation  more  nearly  the  fact  to  say  that  instincts 
are  acquired  habits  that  have  been  retained  and  practiced 
by  the  successive  members  of  family  and  race  until  they  have 
modified  the  structure  or  become  manifest  in  tendencies  in- 
herent in  structure.  Habits  may  arise  by  the  conscious  or 
unconscious  response  of  the  organism  to  the  various  influ- 
ences of  the  environment  of  the  conditions  created  by  the 
environmental  forces.  They  have  both  a  physiological  and 
psychological  side  to  them.  Pysiologically  a  habit  is  a  path- 
way of  discharge  formed  in  the  nerve  substance  by  which 
certain  molecular  disturbances  in  the  form  of  motion  find 
their  way  to  the  brain  and  along  which  similar  disturbances 
tend  ever  afterwards  to  escape.  New  or  acquired  habits 
according  to  this  would  simply  be  a  new  pathway  formed 
in  the  nerve  substance  of  the  body  along  which  incoming  cur- 


Subsidiary  Phases  of  Education  343 

rents  started  by  disturbances  in  some  part  of  the  body 
would  tend  to  become  permanent  as  a  line  of  least  resistance 
for  motion  along  which  all  future  motion  aroused  by  similar 
disturbances  would  tend  to  escape.  From  the  same  view- 
point the  overcoming  of  a  habit  would  be  either  the  modify- 
ing of  old  paths  of  discharge  and  the  formation  of  new  ones 
or  the  entire  removal  of  old  ones  with  or  without  the  forma- 
tion of  new  ones  in  place  of  the  old.  The  nervous  system  of 
the  animal  world  was  in  the  simplest  form  biologists  tell  us, 
a  crude  "  device  to  connect  sense  organs  with  muscles," 
thereby  enabling  the  discharge  of  movements  in  response 
to  various  stimuli  in  the  environment.  "  Nothing  that  we 
do  remains  unrecorded  by  this  system."  It  stores  up  the 
modifications  of  every  act  and  its  stimulus.  The  modifica- 
tion of  structure  resulting  tend  to  preserve  themselves  and 
provide  for  similar  discharges  of  motion  in  the  future. 

In  every  form  of  living  structure  there  are  inherent  cer- 
tain latent  capacities  and  tendencies  to  action.  By  inducing 
these  capacities  and  tendencies  to  issue  in  action  we  form 
the  basis  of  habit.  By  focalizing  the  attention  of  the  mind 
upon  these  actions  and  repeating  them  there  are  formed 
what  are  called  habits.  In  life  we  owe  all  system  in  work 
and  all  forms  of  organization  to  habit,  either  directly  through 
present  actions,  or  indirectly  through  the  structure  inherited 
by  the  activity  of  the  race  in  its  life  history.  The  chief 
value  of  habits  both  in  life  and  in  the  schoolroom  is  that  they 
contribute  to  an  increase  of  speed  and  accuracy  in  action  and 
diminish  fatigue  in  labor.  It  also  gives  one  new  methods 
of  approach  in  certain  activities  and  for  others  a  necessary 
knowledge.  Without  habit  the  mind  could  never  get  beyond 
the  immediate  action  of  the  moment.  The  paths  of  dis- 
charge in  the  case  of  habit  become  lines  of  little  or  no  re- 
sistence  and  when  formed  serve  as  a  channel  into  which  the 
mind  can  turn  much  of  its  work.  The  cerebral  center  is 
the  seat  of  conscious  action,  the  cerebellic  center  is  that  of 
unconscious  or  perhaps  better  that  of  partially  conscious 
action.  Actions  which  at  first  are  highly  conscious  and  re- 
quire the  entire  force  of  the  cerebral  center  to  carry  them 
to    successful    issue  as    the    paths    of    discharge    for    them 


344  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

become  formed  may  be  delegated  to  the  cerebellic  center, 
thus  leaving  the  cerebral  center  free  for  other  forms  of  ac- 
tion. Thus  by  constantly  making  various  forms  of  action 
habits  we  can  obtain  freedom  of  time  and  effort  for  the  per- 
formance of  other  activities.  This  process  may  be  extended 
without  limit  each  time  extending  the  range  of  habitual  ac- 
tions until  we  have  at  our  command  an  indefinite  number 
of  habits  of  action  now  become  a  part  of  our  organic  struc- 
ture permanently  recorded  in  the  nervous  system  as  one's 
individual  possessions  for  the  emergencies  of  life,  leaving 
the  mind  still  free  to  pursue  any  form  of  conscious  action 
on  an  equal  footing  with  the  rest  of  the  world.  Thus  it  is 
that  habits  diminish  feeling  and  increase  activity.  While 
we  bring  a  few  hereditary  reflex  and  automatic  forms  of 
action  into  life  with  us,  the  chief  part  of  our  habitual  activi- 
ties are  formed  and  recorded  in  our  organic  structure  by 
repetition  under  the  control  and  direction  of  the  will.  Hu- 
man freedom  of  action  consists  in  the  power  of  the  mind  to 
initiate  organic  action  under  the  excitation  of  various  stimuli 
to  discontinue  such  action,  to  modify  it  or  to  remove  either  the 
exciting  agent  or  the  part  or  parts  of  the  organism  affected. 
No  new  habits  can  be  formed  unless  the  will  is  invoked  to 
arrest  or  modify  old  forms  of  muscular  activity  or  initiate 
new  forms.  If  one  refuses  by  will  to  begin  the  performance 
of  an  act  or  to  continue  its  performance  a  habit  of  action  as 
a  positive  state  is  impossible.  This  is  the  history  of  "habit 
both  in  the  forming  and  in  the  unforming.  Thus  it  is  evi- 
dent that  will  and  habit  go  hand  in  hand.  While,  however, 
will  may  be  invoked  to  form  positive  habits  the  failure  to 
exercise  will  may  just  as  definitely  lead  to  the  formation 
of  habits  of  action  that  a  very  strenuous  exercise  of  will  may 
be  required  to  unform  and  sometimes  habits  so  formed  re- 
quire such  suffering  that  the  organism  cannot  successfully 
withstand  the  strain.  All  will,  however,  depends  upon  ha- 
bitual muscular  coordination.  Since  habits  once  formed  ex- 
clude the  formation  of  other  habits  it  is  essential  that  the 
proper  habits  be  formed  at  the  beginning.  Both  good  and 
bad  habits  go  through  the  same  processes  in  formation  and 
are  recorded  with  like  degrees  of  permanence  in  the  nerve 


Subsidiary  Phases  of  Education  345 

structure  of  the  organism.  Likewise  both  often  involve  seri- 
ous shocks  to  the  nervous  system  in  order  to  be  changed. 
It  takes  just  as  serious  efforts  to  acquire  a  bad  habit  as 
a  good  one.  Besides  there  is  a  triple  loss  of  time  and  energy 
in  the  formation  of  bad  habits  to  say  nothing  of  the  other 
manifold  evils  that  follow  in  their  wake.  First  of  all  bad 
habits  must  be  formed  and  they  go  through  the  same  process 
of  formation  as  good  ones  do.  Then  they  must  be  unformed. 
After  they  have  been  successfully  unformed  the  good  ones 
which  might  have  been  formed  at  first  may  now  be  formed 
in  their  places.  Besides  all  of  this  it  is  much  more  difficult 
to  unform  an  old  habit  than  to  form  a  new  one,  for  so  dif- 
ficult is  the  unforming  of  some  old  habits  that  in  accomplish- 
ing it  the  entire  organism  is  sometimes  undone.  The  longer 
the  paths  of  discharge  have  been  formed,  the  more  persistent 
they  become  and  resultingly  the  more  difficult  it  is  to  remove 
them.  That  is  to  say  the  older  a  habit  the  harder  it  is  to 
break  one's  self  of  it.  It  is  an  associated  fact  also  that 
while  the  young  acquire  habits  readily  it  is  also  compara- 
tively easy  for  them  to  get  rid  of  them,  while  with  the  older, 
the  more  matured,  more  slowly  are  habits  formed  and  they 
are  also  more  difficult  and  slow  in  yielding  to  efforts  to  re- 
move them.  In  childhood  the  period  of  maximum  plasticity 
and  impressibility  is  the  time  not  only  to  form  habits,  nor 
even  to  form  good  habits,  but  to  form  the  best  habits. 

Kinds  of  Habits.  With  habits  as  with  other  forms  of 
school  and  mental  processes  there  are  various  classes  or 
kinds  given  according  to  the  author  and  his  viewpoint.  The 
classic  division  of  habits  is  into  the  groups  of  native  and 
acquired  habits.  This  division  is  genetic  and  is  the  pre- 
vailing system  of  division.  William  James  gives  us  practical, 
emotional,  and  intellectual  habits.  However,  there  is  another 
classification  that  appeals  to  us  here.  This  is  the  classifica- 
tion into  physical,  mental,  moral  and  religious  habits. 

Nothing  is  more  valuable,  nothing  contributes  more  to 
one's  health,  happiness  and  success  in  life  than  a  set  of  good 
physical  habits.  Regularity  and  moderation  in  sleeping 
and  eating,  together  with  a  good  physical  environment  for 
the  body  enables  the  bodily  energies  to  be  raised  to  a  max- 


346  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

imum  degree  of  efficiency.  The  time  comes  in  the  life  of 
every  individual,  when,  if  he  would  succeed  he  must  have 
at  his  command  for  immediate  use  an  extra  supply  of  en- 
ergy. If  this  is  wanting  and  his  body  fails  him  he  breaks 
down,  or  is  unable  to  meet  the  demand  of  the  moment  and 
either  is  lost  or  fails  in  his  efforts  at  achievement.  Given 
a  long  life,  normal  strength  and  activity,  most  men  of  ambi- 
tion get  well  onto  the  attainment  of  their  life's  ideals.  Pre- 
mature death  superinduced  by  bad  physical  habits  has 
robbed  humanity  of  many  of  its  most  able  and  brilliant  men 
long  before  they  had  contributed  a  small  fraction  of  their 
energy  and  ability  to  human  progress.  The  old  Latin 
proverb,  "Sana  mens  sano  corpore  "  (a  sound  mind  in  a 
sound  body)  was  not  spoken  amiss.  The  sum  total  of  human 
happiness  has  been  found  to  be  decidedly  affected  by  the  sum 
total  of  human  habits.  Suicides  and  murders  are  often 
traceable  to  ill  health  and  degenerate  bodies  obtained 
through  bad  physical  habits.  All  forms  of  violent  passions, 
irritability,  melancholy,  many  spells  of  sickness  and  dis- 
eases are  directly  attributable  to  bad  physical  habits. 

Moral  habits  in  the  sense  of  social  conduct  —  our  conduct 
toward  our  fellows  —  are  the  source  of  much  pain  and  dis- 
comfort in  society.  Habits  of  moral  action  are  woefully 
lacking  in  even  many  so-called  highly  civilized  countries  and 
highly  educated  people.  Among  men  actions  are  mostly 
egocentric.  That  is  to  say  the  actions  of  men  cluster  about 
themselves.  They  emanate  from  self  and  return  to  self. 
Closely  associated  with  moral  habits  are  religious  habits. 
Very  little  is  done  in  the  schools  of  this  country  either  in 
religious  education  or  the  formation  of  religious  habits. 
The  state  and  the  school  leave  such  matters  to  the  home  and 
the  church,  while  the  home  seems  inclined  to  place  its  share 
of  the  burden  on  the  church.  The  church  has  little  direct 
coercive  power  to  assiduously  bring  about  the  formation 
of  religious  habits.  The  custom  of  the  church  threatening 
the  evil  doers  in  the  world  with  hell  fire  and  vivid  picturing 
of  heavenly  bliss  as  a  reward  for  certain  kinds  of  conduct 
have  in  many  instances  enabled  the  church  to  bring  about 
the  formation  of  good  religious  habits  among  its  communi- 


Subsidiary  Phases  of  Education  347 

cants,  such  as  the  regular  attendance  upon  its  services,  the 
contribution  of  a  "  tithe  "  of  their  earnings  to  its  support 
and  the  refraining  from  certain  forms  of  action  which  it  holds 
to  be  not  for  the  good  of  the  individual  and  mankind.  How- 
ever, good  religious  habits  contribute  equally  with  other 
kinds  of  habits  to  human  happiness  on  earth  besides  having 
the  distinct  merit  of  holding  out  a  ray  of  hope  for  suffering 
humanity  in  the  presence  of  the  great  beyond  to  which  all 
men  come  in  their  thoughts  and  which  without  this  ray  of 
light  life  itself  for  many  would  be  miserable  and  the  passage 
out  of  life  into  the  hereafter  would  be  fraught  with  trembling 
fear  and  terrible  foreboding. 

The  school  is  concerned  chiefly  with  intellectual  habits. 
William  James  says,  "  All  our  life  so  far  as  it  has  definite 
form  is  but  a  mass  of  habits  —  systematically  organized 
for  our  weal  and  woe  and  bearing  us  irresistibly  toward  our 
destiny  whatever  the  latter  may  be."  These  habits  it  is  the 
business  of  education  to  cultivate  if  good,  modify  and  re- 
direct if  they  be  capable  of  becoming  good,  or  remove  if 
bad,  substituting  for  those  removed  such  new  habits  as  will 
promote  the  greatest  degree  of  organic  living  and  working 
efficiency  and  raise  to  a  maximum  degree  the  capacity  of  the 
individual  for  happiness  and  complete  living.  In  producing 
desired  habits  the  teacher  can  employ  the  principle  of  asso- 
ciation or  suggestion  mentioned  above  to  good  advantage. 
In  the  school  process  if  those  things  which  belong  together 
are  put  together,  naturally,  and  if  those  things  which  be- 
long apart  are  kept  apart  and  thus  drilled  into  the  mind,  the 
process  of  thus  associating  or  separating  them  in  thought 
will  become  in  time  a  fixed  habit,  the  value  of  which  to  the 
pupil's  mental  life  will  be  for  all  purposes  of  education  almost 
inestimable.  Good  habits  can  be  fostered  by  a  proper  system 
of  reward,  and  bad  habits  discouraged  by  a  proper  system 
of  punishments  —  the  good  adhibited,  the  bad  inhibited.  All 
of  the  routine  processes  of  the  schoolroom  may  in  this  way 
be  reduced  to  habit.  Correct  sitting  and  standing  postures, 
grace  and  ease  in  movements  and  carriage,  neatness  in  per- 
sonal appearance,  accuracy  and  thoroughness  in  school  work, 
cheerfulness,  good  disposition  and  general  pleasantness  in 


848  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

manners  are  all  a  matter  of  habit  with  the  formation  of 
which  the  school  can  do  much.  Especially  should  the  teacher 
concern  himself  with  habits  in  work  and  posture.  Slowness 
in  sitting  and  standing  indicate  a  corresponding  trait  in 
character,  while  lack  of  neatness  in  dress  and  personal  ap- 
pearance besides  being  manifestations  of  character  will  fol- 
low throughout  life  and  by  bad  presentation  handicap  one 
even  from  the  very  beginning  in  life.  In  every  form  of  life 
these  kinds  of  habits  once  formed  follow  one  throughout  life 
for  weal  or  woe.  Consequently  no  effort  put  forth  in  early 
life  to  insure  the  formation  of  a  series  of  good  habits  in  the 
young  in  these  things  can  be  counted  as  effort  misdirected. 
The  cheerful  smile  even  in  trial  and  pain  is  always  welcome. 
"  Laugh  and  the  world  laughs  with  you,  weep  and  you  weep 
alone  "  is  true  both  in  theory  and  practice.  No  one  wishes 
to  meet  the  person  who  is  always  complaining  and  thereby 
is  always  miserable.  He  is  shunned  by  all  alike.  Much 
of  the  ails  of  humanity  is  imaginery,  much  of  our  thought 
along  these  lines  is  merely  habit,  habits  that  it  were  better 
for  us  all  had  they  never  been  formed. 

We  will  now  attempt  the  application  of  this  discussion  of 
habit  to  the  field  of  education.  A  moment  ago  it  was  said 
that  all  system  and  organization  owes  its  strength  to  habit. 
It  is  a  fact  habit  does  leave  the  mind  free  for  conscious  in- 
telligent action  along  other  lines.  But  it  is  also  true  that 
habit  reduces  conscious  intelligent  action,  that  is,  the  ten- 
dency of  habit  is  to  reduce  the  organism  to  a  mechanism. 
Carried  to  this  extent  habit  becomes  an  evil  instead  of  a 
good.  Again  in  all  natures  there  is  a  strong  reaction  against 
the  formation  of  habits  of  action.  The  argument  being  that 
will  and  initiative,  self-assertive  action,  suffer  thereby. 
Since  the  tendency  of  the  age  in  matters  educational  is  in 
this  direction,  this  complaint  is  to  be  expected.  The  com- 
plaint, however,  should  be  taken  as  a  timely  warning  and 
the  teacher  who  is  wise  will  heed  it.  School  routine  even  in 
the  form  of  habit  that  makes  the  child  an  automaton  and 
negatives  his  will  is  more  than  useless.     It  is  an  evil. 

II.  Morals.  Education  for  efficiency  as  well  as  for  com- 
plete living  must  develop  along  all  lines,  that  is,  must  fit 


Subsidiary  Phases  of  Education  849 

a  man  for  all  of  the  forms  of  social  activity  and  social  con- 
tact. The  best  men  in  society,  the  ones  who  make  the  world 
better  by  being  in  it,  are  not  so  often  those  who  have  acquired 
the  greatest  knowledge  of  facts  and  truths,  and  the  greatest 
skill  in  the  use  of  the  instruments  of  civilization  and  progress, 
as  they  are  those  who  have  the  disposition  and  the  strength 
of  will  (character)  to  regulate  their  conduct  to  the  best 
interests  of  their  fellows.  They  may  know  less  of  the  duties 
and  responsibilities  of  civic  and  social  life,  they  may  know 
less  of  facts  of  knowledge  and  underlying  truths,  they  may 
have  less  skill  in  using  the  instruments  of  civilization,  but 
such  persons  will  be  found  to  do  more  actual  work,  to  render 
more  enduring  service  to  humanity  than  any  other  group  of 
the  social  body.  The  end  of  moral  education  is  the  forma- 
tion of  character, —  the  training  of  the  will  to  do  that  which 
the  intellect  shows  to  be  the  best  for  all.  Moral  education 
in  general  takes  on  two  forms.  In  the  one  it  becomes  the 
training  in  the  habits  of  living,  the  social  usages  as  practiced 
by  members  of  the  social  group  one  toward  the  other.  This 
latter  we  generally  call  manners.  The  former  form  of  edu- 
cation generally  develops  in  two  directions.  In  the  one  form 
it  looks  to  the  conduct  of  one  toward  himself  and  in  the  other 
it  looks  toward  his  conduct  to  others.  In  general  the  train- 
ing in  conduct  towards  self  is  neglected  for  the  training  in 
conduct  towards  others.  But  if  anything  is  to  be  given 
more  consideration,  the  proper  conduct  toward  self  should 
receive  precedence  over  that  toward  others.  Further,  moral 
education  too  often  takes  the  form  of  the  abstract  and  im- 
practical instead  of  the  concrete  and  practical,  whereupon 
we  are  led  to  look  over  the  small  and  simple  things  at  hand 
in  life  for  the  more  profound  that  is  often  remote  and  dif- 
ficult of  attainment.  There  is  just  as  much  immorality  and 
wrong  in  robbing  one's  body  of  rest,  food  and  exercise  as 
there  is  in  stealing  a  neighbor's  purse.  It  is  just  as  im- 
moral to  overwork  and  abuse  the  stomach  and  vital  organs  as 
to  mistreat  one's  fellows  and  overwork  and  underfeed  and 
underpay  them.  The  fact  is,  the  former  is  more  directly  fol- 
lowed by  retributive  justice  than  the  latter.  Yet  how  many 
moral  lessons  impress  these  facts  upon  the  minds  of  the  young? 


350  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

On  the  contrary  the  child  is  taught  the  seriousness  of  the 
former  almost  to  the  total  neglect  of  the  latter.  These  relics 
of  the  asceticism  and  self-abnegation  that  marked  papal  su- 
premacy in  the  Middle  Ages  and  which  was  broken  by  the  hey- 
day of  renascent  humanism  still  have  their  traces  in  human 
conduct.  The  sickness,  disease  and  human  suffering  that 
this  indifference  to  self  and  self-welfare  has  caused  mankind 
is  almost  beyond  conception.  The  school  can  and  should 
do  much  to  remove  this  condition.  Physiology  and  hygiene 
are  especially  fitted  for  the  development  of  a  moral  sense  and 
moral  ideas  looking  to  the  care  of  self  in  conformity  to  the 
demands  of  the  physiological  laws  of  health  and  activity. 
The  kinds  of  food,  the  amounts  and  the  hours  of  rest  and 
exercise  are  all  subjects  that  teachers  may  develop  in  the 
school  to  much  practical  profit  even  though  the  control  of 
such  things  in  practice  is  not  left  to  the  discretion  of  the 
teacher  nor  to  the  wishes  or  intelligence  of  the  child,  but  is 
regulated  by  those  in  authority  in  the  home,  where  similar 
kinds  of  intrusion  are  often  seriously  resented.  Results  there- 
fore will  be  best  where  the  home  is  advanced  in  thoughts  and 
methods  and  teacher  can  have  the  thoughtful  and  sympa- 
thetic cooperation  of  the  home  in  these  efforts. 

The  other  form  of  moral  training  —  that  which  en- 
deavors to  regulate  our  conduct  towards  others  —  receives 
considerable  attention  from  the  teacher  and  is  reduced  to 
somewhat  of  a  system  in  the  school  processes.  But  it  too 
is  to  quite  an  extent  an  heirloom  of  the  Middle  Ages.  How- 
ever, perhaps  for  this  very  reason  this  code  is  pretty  gen- 
erally in  use.  It  seems  to  have  gotten  its  hold  in  the  school 
when  the  church  dominated  both  the  school  and  the  state. 
This  code  of  conduct  involves  chiefly  our  conduct  toward 
others.  Its  aim  is  to  regulate  action  between  man  and 
man.  Most  moral  teaching  of  this  kind,  however,  is  laid 
down  in  theory  and  abstract  principle.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
teacher  to  make  them  practical  by  teaching  them  by  means 
of  concrete  illustration.  For  just  as  the  facts  of  knowledge 
are  best  grasped  by  object  lessons  so  the  facts  of  conduct 
are  most  clearly  taught  by  the  use  of  concrete  example. 
Just  as  also  right  thoughts  are  aroused  by  the  presentation 


Subsidiary  Phases  of  Education  351 

of  those  exciting  agents  calculated  to  awaken  them,  so  right 
feeling  in  conduct  is  obtained  by  the  presentation  of  such 
objects  as  will  occasion  the  arising  in  consciousness  of  the 
desired  mental  images.  Many  have  contended  that  moral 
judgments  are  innate  in  the  mind.  But  whether  this  be  true 
or  not  it  is  a  fact  that  once  there  they  require  development 
if  they  are  to  become  of  any  practical  service.  Capable 
judgment  in  moral  matters  is  only  reached  comparatively 
late  in  the  stages  of  moral  progress  just  as  is  the  case  in 
mental  judgment.  While  material  for  moral  instruction 
in  the  school  may  be  drawn  from  almost  any  source,  litera- 
ture, maxims  and  proverbs  including  fairy  tales,  parables, 
legends,  fables,  allegories  and  the  daily  occurrences  in  and 
about  the  school,  all  may  by  a  skillful  teacher  be  made  fit 
material  for  moral  instruction. 

In  right  conduct  we  deal  with  what  we  call  the  moral  sense, 
more  commonly  known  as  the  conscience.  This  must  first  be 
awakened  by  the  conditions  of  the  living  environment.  Then 
it  must  be  fed  on  the  proper  material  and  the  nascent  ideas 
developed  into  clear  moral  ideas  along  with  the  power  to  form 
full  and  complex  moral  judgments.  In  no  form  of  instruc- 
tion is  the  example  of  the  teacher  so  necessary  as  in  moral 
instruction.  Here  is  one  case  where  pupils  learn  to  do  by 
seeing  things  done  as  well  as  by  doing.  The  abstract  pre- 
cepts of  right  and  wrong  conduct  will  avail  much  in  control- 
ling the  acts  of  children,  but  where  the  child  has  the  high 
standard  of  moral  conduct  in  the  teacher  and  in  many  in 
parents  the  appeal  to  him  will  always  be  much  more  effective. 
Children  are  to  a  great  extent  hero  worshippers  and  imitat- 
ors and  they  observe  us  and  copy  our  actions  and  words 
when  we  are  least  conscious  of  it.  There  are  few  graded 
courses  in  morals  in  use  in  schools  to-day.  But  whether  such 
are  available  for  teachers  or  not,  both  superintendents,  prin- 
cipals and  teachers  in  the  graded  schools  can  formulate  plans 
for  most  instructions  that  will  be  progressive  in  form  and 
scope  and  that  are  adapted  to  the  ascending  grades.  In 
the  school  the  child  first  meets  his  fellows  on  an  equal  foot- 
ing. Here  first  fully  the  ego  of  one  child  crosses  that  of 
another  and  either  takes  up  with  or  antagonizes  the  ego  of 


352  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

the  other.  The  right  of  one  against  another  at  once  arises 
and  must  be  considered  separately  and  in  conjunction  with 
the  rights  of  the  aggregate.  The  growing  child  will  have  to 
modify  many  tendencies  and  get  rid  of  others  that  up  to  this 
time  he  has  been  allowed  to  cultivate  undisturbedly.  In  the 
process  of  this  new  experience  and  its  changes  upon  his 
habits  of  thought  and  action  the  teacher  can  exercise  great 
influence  and  drive  home  many  valuable  lessons  in  duties, 
rights,  and  responsibilities.  The  first  lessons  in  importance 
in  moral  teaching  in  the  school  is  probably  that  of  obedience. 
Obedience  at  least  to  some  extent  has  already  been  begun  in 
the  home,  but  generally  only  begins  to  be  effective  when  en- 
forced in  the  school.  Next  we  come  to  property  rights,  to 
freedom  of  individual  action,  closely  followed  by  honor, 
courage,  self-control  and  truthfulness.  All  of  these  and 
many  more  are  highly  essential  to  the  success  of  the  child  not 
only  in  the  school,  but  also  in  after  life.  If  these  be  well 
learned  here  in  the  period  of  high  impressibility  the  child  has 
with  him  an  asset  in  conduct  that  will  offset  many  other  pos- 
sible shortcomings. 

Prominent  among  our  conduct  toward  others  stands  our 
conduct  to  animals.  Animals  in  their  needs  and  activities 
appeal  to  the  gentler  emotions  of  man  chiefly  because  of  their 
dependence,  also  because  of  the  services  they  render  to  man. 
To  a  few  proper  conduct  toward  them  appeals  also  as  mere 
matter  of  justice  in  the  abstract.  Primitive  man  whose 
status  in  each  generation  is  represented  by  the  child  is  un- 
restrained in  brutality  and  marked  by  the  lack  of  the  higher 
feelings  of  sympathy  and  kindness.  The  chief  method  of 
arousing  the  higher  feeling  toward  the  helpless  and  to  pre- 
vent the  venting  of  anger  and  violent  passion  upon  them  is 
through  the  appreciation  of  pain  felt  by  self  whether  that 
pain  comes  from  others  or  from  the  suffering  subject.  Fear 
of  pain  is  undoubtedly  a  general  means  of  enforcing  a  re- 
straint on  human  action.  In  the  young  curiosity  is  a  ruling 
incentive  to  beget  action  and  young  children  who  have  little 
idea  of  pain  and  suffering  will  inflict  any  amount  of  torture 
and  pain  upon  animals  without  having  any  conception  of 
what  they  are  doing.     In  the  absence  of  any  outward  check 


Subsidiary  Phases  of  Education  353 

upon  such  actions  the  school  through  its  teacher  and  teaching 
must  impose  an  inward  check.  Talks  upon  the  nature  of 
animal  life  and  the  suffering  they  undergo,  their  service  to 
mankind,  their  place  in  the  economy  of  nature  and  the  simi- 
larity between  their  lives  and  ours  all  will  tend  to  create  in 
the  young  the  proper  moral  feeling  toward  animals.  Chil- 
dren who  in  their  youth  when  the  dormant  sympathies  can 
be  easily  and  properly  directed  are  taught  the  needs  of  ani- 
mals and  shown  how  they  both  appreciate  kindness  and  often- 
times show  their  appreciation  by  reciprocation  will  learn 
lasting  lessons  of  kindness  to  animals.  For  children  to  have 
various  animals  as  pets  is  one  way  in  which  to  promote  kindly 
feeling  in  children  for  animals  and  another  is  by  a  proper 
series  of  talks  and  illustrations  in  the  schoolroom  of  their 
habitat  and  methods  of  living,  and  rearing  young  with  illus- 
trations of  whatever  signs  they  show  of  mental  life.  To  these 
efforts  may  be  added  with  good  effect  the  organization  in 
the  schools  of  societies  for  the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  ani- 
mals with  perhaps  pledge  cards  and  other  emblems  of  associa- 
tions. Where  occasion  presents  itself  these  school  organ- 
izations may  be  made  affiliated  organizations  with  civic 
organizations  of  this  kind.  Much  is  being  done  in  state,  city 
and  town  for  the  better  treatment  of  animals.  These  forces, 
however,  are  inconsiderable  when  compared  to  the  force  that 
the  teacher  and  the  school  may  become  if  proper  forms  of 
moral  education  be  instituted  in  the  school  and  if  these  be 
constantly  and  systematically  taught  throughout  the  school 
period. 

Besides  this  in  a  general  way  everything  within  the  school 
has  a  moral  aspect  that  may  be  put  to  good  use  by  the 
teacher  in  raising  the  moral  tone  of  the  school.  The  various 
movements  of  the  school  may  be  done  with  precision,  prompt- 
ness, regularity ;  during  them  the  body  may  be  held  erect 
and  the  head  up  as  well  as  obedience  enforced,  all  of  which 
tends  to  put  the  child  in  a  position  of  advanced  relation 
with  his  fellows  that  in  itself  is  highly  moralizing.  By  in- 
stilling habits  of  industry,  neatness  and  accuracy  and  of 
application  to  work  the  school  does  much  for  many  of  its 
numbers.     It  is  surprising  how  few  children  learn  concen- 


354)  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

trated  and  continued  effort  in  the  home.  What  this  short- 
coming or  indisposition  to  pursue  work  for  long  periods  of 
time  means  to  organized  capital  and  industry  and  to  enforced 
idleness  suffering  and  crime  to  the  child  in  after  life  every  one 
knows.  It  is  left  then  for  the  school  to  teach  children  to 
work  for  longer  or  shorter  periods  of  time  even  though  it  cost 
the  putting  forth  of  will  power  and  the  using  up  of  much 
surplus  bodily  energy.  Of  course,  care  must  be  taken  that 
health  and  growth  be  not  impaired  by  such  routine  system, 
but  the  work  of  the  school  ought  to  be  carefully  mapped  out 
with  due  regard  for  the  health  and  growth  of  the  pupils,  and 
then  its  learning  by  all  insisted  upon  by  the  stimulation 
of  will  and  ambition. 

No  place,  however,  affords  the  opportunity  for  moral  in- 
struction like  the  playgrounds.  Here  the  pure  minded  and 
the  evil  minded  child  come  into  familiar  and  close  contact. 
The  child  of  the  slums  meets  and  contaminates  the  mind  of 
the  child  from  the  most  cultured  homes.  Obscenity  and  pro- 
fanity are  rampant,  also  a  host  of  minor  evils.  All  of  these 
the  teacher  must  see,  know,  correct  and  overcome.  The  child 
is  never  at  himself  better  than  when  on  the  playground.  To 
begin  with,  activity  is  a  demand  for  his  proper  growth  and 
development.  His  moral  weaknesses  and  misconceptions 
crop  out  there  as  nowhere  else.  His  abilities  and  capacities 
are  there  free  for  the  fullest  expression  as  are  the  stimuli 
for  exciting  them  to  activity.  Here  the  child  may  be  ob- 
served exactly  as  he  is.  Aside  from  the  fact  that  play  gives 
the  child  new  concepts  of  self  in  his  relation  to  others  it  also 
gives  the  teacher  interesting  material  as  well  as  an  oppor- 
tunity for  driving  home  moral  lessons  in  conduct  and  feel- 
ing for  others,  that  arise  nowhere  in  the  school  life.  While 
there  are  many  arguments  advanced  against  the  recess  period, 
the  playground  and  their  supervision  by  the  teacher  to- 
gether with  his  constant  commingling  on  the  playground 
with  the  pupil,  this  is  one  argument  and  a  very  strong  one 
why  the  teacher  should  at  all  times  even  at  sacrifice  to  him- 
self be  present  with  the  pupils  on  the  playground.  Sex 
commingling  in  the  schools  may  be  made  the  means  of  much 
valuable  moral  teaching.     There  is  a  wholesome  moral  effect 


Subsidiary  Phases  of  Education  355 

both  upon  boys  and  girls  where  the  two  are  allowed  to  com- 
mingle freely  in  the  school.  Besides  social  pride  which 
ohows  itself  early  in  such  schools,  boys  become  gentler  and 
more  refined,  while  girls  lose  much  of  their  prudishness  and 
early  sentimentality,  when  accustomed  to  the  refined  associa- 
tion of  morally  good  boys.  The  locality  of  the  school  also 
contributes  much  to  its  moral  tone.  School  buildings  should 
be  located  in  the  better  sections  of  the  town  and  where  there 
is  the  least  amount  of  social  pollution,,  for  the  children  to  be 
exposed  to  in  their  daily  journeys  to  and  from  the  school 
if  the  best  is  to  be  attained  morally  with  the  child. 

III.  Religion.  On  the  one  side  morals  run  off  into  man- 
ners on  the  other  side  into  religion.  Religious  education  is 
forbidden  in  American  public  schools  by  legislative  enact- 
ment. Not  that  the  religious  training  is  not  essential,  but 
that  it  is  not  considered  the  duty  of  the  state  to  look  after  the 
religious  education  of  the  child,  but  that  that  responsibility 
by  tacit  consent,  and  rightly,  falls  upon  the  church.  One 
of  the  chief  reasons  why  all  of  the  teaching  and  discussion  of 
the  bible  is  forbidden  in  the  public  schools  is  that  it  leads  to 
wrangling  over  minor  matters  of  doctrine  which  are  matters 
for  the  sects  to  discuss  and  determine  rather  than  for  the 
school.  Besides  religious  zeal  and  devotion  are  rather  per- 
sonal matters  into  which  it  is  argued  one  should  go  rather 
by  personal  choice  than  by  training  and  compulsion.  It  is 
a  fact,  however,  that  if  the  school  aims  in  its  efforts  at  the 
production  of  a  well  rounded  complete  man,  to  neglect  such 
an  important  side  of  him  as  his  religious  side  would  be  a 
serious  oversight  and  mistake,  for  which  the  state  and  society 
pay  a  heavy  penalty.  Religious  training  is  too  important 
a  factor  in  the  progress  and  welfare  of  humanity  to  be  ne- 
glected and  when  the  church  either  neglects  it  or  the  state 
finds  that  its  results  are  not  as  far-reaching  as  it  desires  it 
to  be,  the  state  should  take  the  necessary  steps  to  fill  the 
gap  in  training.  Education  as  fostered  by  the  state  is  com- 
pulsory and  religion  is  a  matter  of  personal  choice.  But 
even  with  this  religion  could  be  offered  by  the  school  and 
still  be  optional.  If  the  state  undertook  religious  education 
it  could  use  compulsion  in  regard  to  it  if  deemed  best  and 


356  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

thereby  get  results  which  the  church  has  not  succeeded  in 
getting  in  religious  training.  In  a  way  religious  education 
is  a  safeguard  to  the  state  the  same  as  is  intellectual  educa- 
tion. Religious  training  and  thought  act  as  a  check  upon 
violent  and  fractious  natures  in  a  way  that  neither  the  state 
nor  society  could  successfully  do.  It  is  but  practical  fore- 
sight on  the  part  of  the  state,  therefore,  to  provide  that 
this  restraint  upon  human  action  shall  not  be  lost.  The 
school  in  particular  and  the  state  less  directly,  both,  owe 
their  maintenance,  perpetuation  and  present  situation  to  the 
fostering  care  of  the  church  and  religion,  when  the  unwar- 
ranted and  sudden  attacks  of  barbarians  and  savage  hordes 
ignorant  of  the  value  of  either  institution  assailed  them  and 
threatened  them  with  immediate  destruction.  For  the  state 
to  neglect  religion  now,  when  it  has  come  into  its  own  looks 
like  gross  ingratitude  to  say  the  least.  American  civiliza- 
tion is  feeling  sadly  the  need  of  the  restraint  of  religious 
training  in  thought  and  action.  The  church  and  its  work 
are  based  upon  voluntary  action,  and,  while  it  has  done  and  is 
doing  a  great  work  for  humanity  even  in  this  way  it  can 
hardly  be  expected  from  what  was  said  above  to  accomplish 
what  the  state  accomplishes  in  education.  All  civilized  states 
have  accepted  and  rigidly  enforced  the  Lutheran  idea  of 
compulsory  attendance  upon  the  public  schools,  why  can 
they  not  accept  the  other  great  doctrine  of  Luther  and 
make  bible  study  one  of  the  subjects  of  the  public  school 
course  of  study?  The  plea  that  the  church  and  the  home 
can  both  look  after  the  religious  education  is  not  a  sufficient 
one.  The  church  and  the  home  can  and  do  look  after  so- 
called  intellectual  education.  But  it  was  found  out  that 
whether  they  could  or  not  they  did  not  get  the  best  results. 
So  it  is  to  some  considerable  extent  with  religious  educa- 
tion. It  is  thus  fair  to  both  to  say  that  they  do  what  they 
can  in  this  regard  which  is  much,  but  not  all  that  is  necessary. 
The  home  has  other  distinctive  functions  which  make  this 
function  secondary,  while  the  church  passes  much  of  its 
function  in  educational  matters  on  to  its  adjunct,  the  Sun- 
day School,  which  it  has  created  within  its  ranks  and  at- 
tempted to  foster  and  support.     And  yet  what  a  woeful  lack 


Subsidiary  Phases  of  Education  357 

is  there  here.  The  work  is  often  poorly  graded,  if  at  all, 
the  pupils  badly  classified,  text  books  scarce  and  language 
not  well  adapted  to  the  young  mind  of  the  child  and  the 
teachers  untrained  both  in  the  subject  matter  of  the  text 
and  the  principles  of  teaching.  The  attendance  upon  the 
Sunday  School,  though  various  artificial  means  are  taken 
to  stimulate  and  keep  it  up,  being  non-compulsory,  is  ir- 
regular and  consequently  only  a  few  of  those  amenable 
by  age  obtain  even  such  education  as  is  offered.  There  is 
little  or  no  system  of  preparation  or  study  of  the  lesson  or 
of  the  recitation,  while  the  time  devoted  to  them  is  short, 
generally  about  thirty  minutes,  to  say  nothing  of  the  lack 
of  room,  meager  equipment  and  the  general  excitement  and 
interruption  amidst  which  the  work  is  done.  It  is  no  wonder 
under  such  circumstances  that  religious  education  as  fos- 
tered by  the  church  is  poor  and  that  society,  state  and 
church  alike  suffer  as  a  result. 

There  is  without  a  doubt  some  justification  of  the  attitude 
against  the  teaching  of  religion  and  the  bible  in  schools,  but 
this  can  and  is  only  valid  when  it  comes  to  sects  and  sectarian 
doctrine  and  religious  views.  Religion  and  the  bible  both 
can  be  shorn  of  these  and  introduced  into  the  schools.  Many 
countries  of  continental  Europe  have  done  this,  notably 
Germany.  Here,  thanks  to  the  influence  of  Luther  religion 
is  a  prominent  part  of  the  German  public  school  curriculum. 
It  is  true  that  it  is  optional  with  parents  as  to  whether 
their  children  shall  attend  these  exercises  or  not,  but  the 
education  is  offered  under  the  guidance  and  control  of  the 
state  to  all  who  wish  to  attend  upon  them.  Nor  is  the  per- 
mission to  keep  children  away  from  such  subjects  left  en- 
tirely to  the  caprice  of  the  parents,  but  those  who  desire  to 
do  such  must  get  official  permission  from  the  state  authori- 
ties, which  is  only  granted  after  the  parent  has  signed  a 
rigid  code  of  relinquishments,  which  few  consent  to  do.  The 
education  given  under  the  head  of  religion  is  graded  and 
consists  of  bible  instruction  and  instruction  in  sacred  his- 
tory and  literature.  Of  course,  there  is  justification  in  the 
jealousy  with  which  Americans  as  a  people  guard  their  re- 
ligious rights  and  freedom,  when  one  thinks  of  and  allows  for 


358  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

what  they  have  suffered  to  gain  and  retain  them.  But  re- 
ligion throws  a  halo  of  security  around  our  social,  political 
and  civil  institutions  that  we  cannot  well  do  without.  Al- 
ready contamination  is  creeping  into  our  social  structure 
and  we  should  take  hold  before  our  civilization  becomes  rot- 
ten at  the  core  and  slowly  eats  out  the  heart  of  our  institu- 
tions and  government.  Religious  education  can  be  taught 
in  the  public  schools  without  endangering  religious  liberty 
and  it  should  be.  Moral  education  has  its  good  quality  and 
is  effective  within  its  range,  but  morality  and  religion  while 
they  have  much  in  common  have  some  things  in  difference. 
That  is,  religion  is  something  apart  from  morality  and  this 
something  morality  can  never  supply  until  it  becomes  re- 
ligion. Mankind  has  not  yet  reached  that  stage,  if  it  ever 
will,  where  it  can  rule  out  of  its  life  all  conceptions  of  God, 
his  works  and  his  restraint  upon  human  action  and  still 
vouchsafe  to  civilization  the  safety  of  its  social,  civil  and 
political  institutions.  Religious  education  should  be  a  fixed 
part  of  our  public  school  curriculum.  For  by  its  being 
taught  there  much  of  stability  and  endurance  of  education 
will  be  saved  for  society  and  the  state. 

IV.  Manners.  Like  instruction  in  religion,  instruction  in 
manners  has  been  chiefly  delegated  to  the  home.  It  is  only 
recently  that  it  has  found  a  place  in  the  common  school  cur- 
riculum, though  even  to  date  that  place  is  an  insignificant 
one.  Manners  should  be  a  prominent  form  of  public  edu- 
cation. Second  to  intellectual  training  and  a  very  close 
second  at  that  stands  training  in  manners.  However, 
though  it  may  be  just  because  of  the  custom  one  and  all  are 
in  the  habit  of  forming  estimates  of  people  by  their  manners. 
Very  good  manners  because  of  the  paths  they  open  to  the  sex 
possessing  them  are  cultivated  by  the  really  low  and  de- 
graded. That  does  not  reflect  upon  good  manners  but 
merely  goes  to  show  how  valuable  an  adjunct  good  manners 
are  to  those  who  would  be  well  judged  and  given  a  chance  in 
the  affairs  of  life.  If  the  school  hopes  to  give  the  child  that 
which  is  valuable  in  personal  presentation  to  society  it  can- 
not negelect  training  in  manners.  Manners  generally  take 
on  two  forms.     Either  they  become  politeness  with  all  that 


Subsidiary  Phases  of  Education  359 

the  word  implies  or  they  run  off  into  etiquette  as  used  in 
its  broad  sense.  Etiquette  in  principle  is  an  outgrowth  or 
perhaps  better  a  corollary  to  politeness  which  goes  into  more 
detail.  Both  politeness  and  etiquette  may  degenerate  into 
mere  form  entirely  devoid  of  all  spirit.  Etiquette  has  been 
more  often  reduced  to  mere  tawdry  conventionality  which 
has  become  so  empty  as  to  cast  a  shadow  of  reflection  upon 
true  etiquette.  In  its  teaching  the  school  must  carefully 
distinguish  between  the  two,  decrying  the  one  and  upholding 
the  other.  Etiquette  is  generally  a  form  of  conduct  that  is  of 
much  value  for  self  and  self-welfare  as  for  others  and  the 
welfare  of  others.  Politeness  is  entirely  for  the  comfort 
and  welfare  of  others.  It  is  the  altruism  that  has  grown 
upon  us  with  civilization  and  marks  the  progress  of  society 
from  a  barbaric  horde  to  an  enlightened  community.  Polite- 
ness is  really  the  truest  form  of  altruism,  especially  if  it 
comes  from  the  heart,  as  it  is  one  of  the  most  unselfish  forms 
of  conduct  civilization  possesses.  America  is  in  this  respect 
to  quite  an  extent  a  country  of  little  social  form  and  con- 
ventionality. We  are,  however,  proud  of  this  trait  and 
are  known  throughout  the  world  for  their  brusqueness  of 
manner  and  curt  indifference  to  social  usage.  It  is  the 
American  idea  of  democratic  liberty.  And,  while  no  true 
American  would  change  the  national  ideal,  there  is  some 
danger  that  the  practice  is  condemnable  as  it  may  be  and 
oftentimes  is,  overdone.  While  democratic  ideas  resent  the 
restraint  of  excessive  conventionality,  there  are  certain  simple 
forms  that  are  necessary  if  there  is  to  be  permanence  to  what 
claims  American  civilization  may  make  to  culture.  In  Eu- 
rope the  American  is  forcibly  impressed  with  the  good  man- 
ners in  old  and  young  and  their  exceeding  politeness  to  all 
alike  both  to  stranger  and  friend.  This  is  particularly 
noticeable  in  Germany  where  lessons  in  manners  constitute 
much  of  the  school  and  home  training  of  children  and  it  is 
evervwhere  regarded  as  an  evidence  of  culture  and  standing. 
The  familiar  "Howdy,"  "Hello!"  and  "Hello  there!"  of 
America  without  bend  of  body,  nod  of  head  or  lift  of  hat 
form  a  remarkable  contrast  to  the  very  formal  and  effective 
"  Bon   matin,"    "  Bon   jour,"    and   "  Guten    Morgen,"    and 


860  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

"  Guten  Tag  "  of  the  French  and  German  of  all  classes  ac- 
companied by  a  bend  of  body,  bow  of  head  and  lift  of  hat. 
So  far  has  this  formal  usage  in  manners  extended  that  men 
lift  their  hats  to  men  as  well  as  to  women  in  most  places  of 
continental  Europe,  this  lift  being  not  merely  the  raising  of 
the  hat  but  the  removing  of  it  to  arm's  length  from  the  head. 
All  greetings  also  are  with  full  bows.  The  girls  do  the 
courtesy  familiar  to  all  Southerners  as  the  "  Curtsie,"  while 
the  boys  mostly  give  the  greeting  from  the  position  of  mili- 
tary salute.  Of  course,  instructions  in  manners  may  go  too 
far  and  a  little  of  it  goes  a  long  ways  with  Americans,  but 
in  avoiding  Scylla  we  must  beware  of  Charybdis.  Either  ex- 
treme is  dangerous.  False  manners  are  a  bane  to  society, 
but  simple  good  usage  that  represents  the  true  feeling  of  one 
is  an  asset  for  individual  or  social  group. 

What  particular  social  forms  should  be  taught  in  the 
schools  is  not  generally  definitely  outlined,  nor  are  they 
taught  in  the  same  number  and  ways  in  the  different  schools. 
In  general  we  should  only  do  those  things  which  express  our 
appreciation  and  sympathy  for  the  presence  and  welfare  of 
others.  These  expressions  should  be  particularly  for  the 
lowly  and  the  helpless  in  general,  and  for  others,  out  of  re- 
spect and  gratitude,  but  never  to  curry  favor.  Too  often 
good  manners  both  in  young  and  old  are  turned  to  this  de- 
graded and  degrading  end.  In  the  home  where  the  welfare 
of  each  is  closely  interwoven  with  that  of  the  other,  courtesy 
and  consideration  are  of  the  utmost  importance.  Next  to 
the  home  those  of  the  school  come  in  for  consideration. 
After  these  follow  our  general  contact  with  our  fellows  in 
a  social  and  business  way.  In  the  school,  children  should 
be  taught  how,  when  and  to  whom  to  raise  the  hat  and  what 
forms  of  greeting  stand  for  in  the  social  relation.  In  the 
niceties  and  delicacies  of  such  forms  the  school  can  have 
little  interest.  They  are  for  the  culture  and  refinement 
as  well  as  conventionality  of  a  society  in  which  the  school 
for  itself  especially  in  a  democratic  country  can  have  little 
concern  and  to  which  it  is  not  intended  that  the  school  should 
cater.  There  is  upon  one  and  all,  however,  constant  de- 
mand for  respect  and  sympathy  for  others  who  are  sick  or 


Subsidiary  Phases  of  Education  361 

afflicted  and  in  need  of  help  everywhere  in  life.  Giving  seats, 
position  or  way  to  the  aged,  to  our  parents  and  older 
brothers,  sisters  and  friends  are  all  practices  that  help  to 
lessen  human  woe  and  suffering  and  which  give  to  children 
a  self-appreciation  and  presence  as  well  as  regard  from 
others  that  are  valuable  throughout  life.  Treatment  of 
strangers,  guests,  hosts  and  hostesses  and  conduct  in  parlor 
and  hall  can  be  outlined  and  handled  in  a  general  way  in 
the  school,  as  well  as  the  conduct  at  the  table  and  on  the 
street.  The  general  suggestion  being  that  the  child  be 
taught  in  these  matters  to  put  the  consideration  and  welfare 
of  others  before  self.  Children,  since  they  come  in  contact 
with  new  people  daily,  should  be  taught  early  how  to  receive 
and  acknowledge  introductions  and  how  to  remedy  social 
and  practical  oversights  and  mistakes  by  an  apology  or  a 
kindly  and  sympathetic  "  Excuse  me,  please."  How  and 
when  to  say  "  thanks  "  or  "  thank  you  "  is  another  lesson 
that  the  child  should  learn  early.  Too  often  children  take 
the  acts  of  others  toward  them  too  indifferently  and  as  a 
matter  of  fact.  Children  little  know  how  much  of  the  world 
order  revolves  around  them  and  perhaps  it  is  well  so.  But 
when  their  interests  are  looked  after  by  parents,  relative, 
friend,  acquaintance  or  even  stranger  with  patient  toil  and 
care  and  often  serious  sacrifice,  certainly  the  child  ought 
to  be  taught  that  system  of  usage  whereby  he  will  see  and 
appreciate  this  help  given  him  and  know  how  and  be  disposed 
to  show  by  these  signs  that  he  appreciated  the  effort  put 
forth  in  his  behalf,  and  know  that  such  should  be  because 
these  things  have  been  furnished  or  made  possible  for  him 
by  the  sacrifice  of  another  individual  or  group  of  individuals. 
Instruction  in  manners  is  to  be  condemned  when  it  attempts 
to  make  a  "  fop  "  or  "  dandy  "  out  of  a  child  or  waste  time 
trying  to  instruct  him  in  fastidious  usages.  But  the  school 
can  serve  the  state  and  society  well  by  giving  wholesome 
instruction  in  the  simple  matters  of  conduct  that  are  de- 
manded in  the  daily  life  of  the  child  in  the  home,  on  the 
street,  in  public  and  in  private,  to  old  and  young  and  to  in- 
ferior and  superior. 

V.  Patriotism.     Patriotism  is  pride,  whether  it  be  of  fam- 


362  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

ily,  home,  town,  state,  country  or  nationality,  not  pride 
merely  expressed  in  so  many  words,  but  pride  that  will  when 
necessary  bring  sacrifice  and  suffering  even  unto  death  that 
the  object  of  pride  may  endure.  Patriotism  has  done  much 
for  the  world  and  saved  the  day  on  many  a  battle  field.  But 
this  is  not  the  only  form  and  use  of  patriotism,  though  it  is 
the  one  mostly  heralded  abroad.  Much  also  has  been  done 
under  the  name  of  patriotism  that  has  degraded  its  other- 
wise ethereal  conception.  The  general  definition  of  patriot- 
ism runs  in  this  strain:  Patriotism  is  devotion  to  one's 
country ;  "  Love  of  country,"  "  a  willingness  to  sacrifice  for 
one's  country,"  etc.  These  definitions  all  strike  at  the 
fundamental  in  patriotism.  It  is  the  feeling  that  places  the 
welfare  of  the  object  for  which  the  feeling  is  manifest  above 
that  of  all  other  objects  even  self  and  is  especially  used  in 
reference  to  one's  native  land.  As  taught  in  the  schools 
patriotism  should  teach  not  only  the  strength  and  virtue  of 
country  but  also  its  weaknesses  and  foibles.  Then  the  child 
can  grow  up  with  joy  in  the  one  and  a  determination  to 
correct  and  remedy  the  other.  Too  often,  love  of  country 
or  patriotism  begins  and  ends  with  the  foreign  foe.  But 
in  every  country  there  are  often  domestic  foes  that  are  more 
dangerous  to  the  country  than  any  foreign  foe  ever  could  be. 
To  be  effective  lessons  in  patriotism  should  go  hand  in  hand 
with  lessons  in  government.  In  this  country,  for  example, 
the  principles  of  democracy  as  well  as  its  snares  and  pitfalls 
should  be  known  intimately  to  all  of  its  citizens.  They  then 
provoke  serious  consideration  along  with  whatever  we  see  to 
boast  of.  Democracies  have  their  weak  side  as  well  as  their 
strong  side.  So  also  have  monarchies  both  limited  and 
absolute.  The  school  can  and  should  show  the  child  that 
which  is  sane  and  wholesome  in  government  and  civil  life  in 
general  and  the  duties  of  the  child  in  respect  to  it,  both 
in  peace  and  in  war.  The  elective  franchise  is  the  guardian 
of  our  political  and  civil  institutions.  Upon  its  proper  use 
depends  the  permanence  and  perpetuation  of  our  country 
as  a  political  unit.  There  is  as  much  need  for  the  proper 
use  of  the  ballot  as  of  the  musket.  Democracies  are  governed 
by  parties.     But  parties  and  partisan  measures  are  never 


Subsidiary  Phases  of  Education  363 

of  superior  importance  to  one's  country.  Patriotism  and 
partisanism  go  hand  in  hand  as  long  as  partisanism  has  the 
perpetuation  of  good  government  and  civil  institutions  in 
the  country  at  heart  and  not  that  of  the  party,  or  the  furth- 
erance of  the  selfish  ends  of  the  men  who  sometimes  head 
the  party.  It  is  just  as  unpatriotic  to  aid  and  abet  graft 
and  corruption  in  government  as  to  betray  one's  country 
to  an  external  foe,  just  as  unpatriotic  to  sell  one's  vote  at 
the  polls  as  to  betray  one's  country  for  money.  We  are 
passing  now  through  an  era  of  corruption  in  government 
that,  if  the  nation  is  to  survive  must  be  rooted  out.  The 
ballot  is  either  misused  or  unused  by  a  large  part  of  the 
citizenship.  If  this  crisis,  for  crisis  it  is,  is  to  be  safely  met 
the  ballot  is  the  instrument  with  which  it  is  to  be  met.  Pa- 
triotism if  properly  taught  in  the  schoolroom  can  do  much 
to  this  end,  not  by  talking  or  teaching  politics  but  by  talk- 
ing and  teaching  honesty  in  purpose,  respect  for  law  and 
a  love  for  its  rigid  and  impartial  enforcement  and  the  need 
of  voting  for  measures  and  men  rather  than  for  mere  party. 
Many  there  are  of  the  citizenship  who  would  willingly  give 
their  lives  to  repel  a  foreign  foe,  but  who  would  not  give 
the  good  will  of  a  friend  or  acquaintance  selfishly  interested 
in  party  advancement  for  the  sake  of  good  government. 

Means  of  Teaching  Patriotism.  The  nation  and  espe- 
cially the  school  can  do  much  toward  cultivating  a  proper 
spirit  of  patriotism  by  acquainting  the  child  with  the  na- 
ture and  duties  of  all  public  officials  and  their  restrictions 
by  and  subserviency  to,  the  law,  to  the  state  and  the  na- 
tion. They  will  then  know  what  they  have  a  right  to  ex- 
pect of  them  and  how  to  demand  and  to  obtain  these  rights. 
To  this  may  be  added  the  methods  of  observing  the  anni- 
versary of  great  events  or  achievements  in  national  life. 
For  example,  we  celebrate  the  "  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence "  at  which  time  orators  speak  of  and  teachers  instruct 
in  the  meaning  and  value  of  that  day  to  Americans.  To  this 
we  add  the  celebration  of  the  birthday  of  our  national  heroes 
and  statesmen,  when  the  children  are  taught  the  virtues  and 
achievements  that  made  these  men  great.  From  the  events 
and  characters  of  national  repute  we  turn  to  those  of  local 


364  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

report.  The  semblance  of  the  national  flag  and  what  re- 
spect of  and  love  for  it  means,  along  with  its  history  of  origin 
and  consequent  existence,  dwelling  especially  upon  it  as  a 
symbol  of  national  honor,  integrity  and  respect.  These  may 
be  accompanied  or  supplemented  by  flag  drills  and  other 
exercises  with  flag  and  bunting  in  flag  colors  to  visibly  as- 
sociate the  symbol  with  that  for  which  it  stands.  In  all 
such  ways  the  school  may  teach  patriotism  to  its  pupils. 
However,  lessons  in  patriotism  would  not  be  complete  with- 
out the  singing  of  our  so-called  national  and  patriotic  songs. 
These  patriotic  hymns  generally  owe  their  origin  to  cir- 
cumstances with  which  in  most  cases  the  song  itself  teems. 
Our  "  Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic,"  "  Marching  Through 
Georgia  "  and  "  The  Star  Spangled  Banner  "  all  partake 
of  the  fiery  spirit  of  the  war  times  that  gave  them  their 
birth.  They  seem  to  be  used  chiefly  to  arouse  this  side  of 
civic  nature  and  patriotism.  For  this  purpose  also  Ger- 
many uses  her  "  Die  Wacht  am  Rhein,"  France  her  "  La 
Marseillaise  "  and  we  our  "  America."  Though,  America  not 
originating  under  similar  circumstances,  partakes  of  a 
slightly  different  spirit.  The  learning  and  singing  of  these 
hymns  will  arouse  the  soul  of  the  pupil  in  the  same  way  that 
it  does  the  older  citizens.  In  connection  with  this  also  just 
what  these  national  hymns  have  meant  to  the  nation  in  the 
past  and  what  they  will  mean  in  the  future  should  be  shown 
by  the  teacher,  the  part  that  the  rising  generation  must  play 
in  maintaining  this  meaning  in  the  future  and  their  con- 
nection with  men  and  events  should  be  carefully  established 
in  the  child's  mind.  American  patriotic  celebrations  do  not 
seem  to  partake  of  such  deep  sentiment  as  patriotic  celebra- 
tions on  the  continent  of  Europe.  Of  course  they  do,  but 
the  nature  of  the  depths  in  their  expression  is  the  difference 
of  the  emotionalism  of  the  two  peoples.  America  seems  to 
be  too  busy  in  the  things  of  the  present  and  money  making 
to  feel  the  emotions  of  these  people  under  the  same  circum- 
stances. Besides  the  school  preparation  in  Germany,  for 
example,  to  which  weeks  and  weeks  of  preparation  and  drill 
in  song  and  march  and  the  use  of  the  flag  is  different.  The 
old  too,  for  such  occasions  gather  in  large  assembly  halls 


Subsidiary  Phases  of  Education  365 

and  listen  to  the  speeches  of  orators  upon  the  greatness 
of  country  and  government.  This  forms  a  strong  contrast 
to  our  fourth  of  July  celebration  in  most  parts  of  this 
county,  where  the  day  means  a  lot  of  fuss  and  noise  with 
danger  to  life  and  little  of  the  import  of  the  day  to  our  na- 
tional life.  The  form  has  lost  its  substance.  The  Fourth 
of  July  is  "  firecracker  day  "  to  most  of  "  young  America  " 
and  hardly  that  to  most  of  "  old  America."  Seeley  closes 
his  discussion  on  Patriotism  by  this  passage :  "  If  patriot- 
ism is  to  be  fostered  in  our  land,  it  must  come  through  the 
great  body  of  teachers  in  our  public  schools.  It  must  come 
early  to  the  school  children  for  the  great  mass  of  children 
leave  school  before  they  reach  their  teens.  It  will  never 
be  taught  in  the  highest  and  best  sense,  if  not  taught  by  the 
teachers  of  the  public  schools  who  reach  this  vast  body  of 
children.  Therefore  as  they  love  God,  and  home,  and  coun- 
try, and  as  they  pray,  and  hope  and  labor  for  the  glory 
of  our  great  country  and  its  noble  institutions  I  summon  the 
teacher  to  his  greatest  work." 

The  school  is  the  greatest  organized  educational  force 
known  to  civilization.  Not  only  in  the  direct  phase  of  edu- 
cation, that  of  getting  facts  and  learning  truth  about  the 
world,  life  and  activity,  but  the  school  is  great  in  these  phases 
of  education  which  we  have  designated  here  as  the  sub- 
sidiary phases  of  education.  These  forms  of  education  are 
more  strictly  education  for  life,  for  complete  living.  In 
these  subsidiary  phases  of  education  the  school  serves  more 
the  state,  the  church,  the  home  and  society  while  in  the  other 
it  serves  more  directly  the  individual.  Here  the  moral 
standard  of  the  country,  here  her  social  and  political  in- 
stitutions if  they  are  to  be  maintained  and  purified  are  formed 
and  fostered,  here  the  value  of  the  ballot  and  its  use  must  be 
learned  as  well  as  the  nature  and  essence  of  democratic  in- 
stitutions. If  the  school  stands  by  her  colors  here  and  does 
her  work  well,  all  is  well,  if  she  fail  in  this,  she  fails  in  all  and 
for  her  all  is  lost.  For  in  the  nature  of  her  service  the 
school  is  unique  and  no  force  in  civilization  has  yet  been 
found  to  take  her  place. 


366  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

REFERENCE  READING 

Taylor's  "  The  Study  of  the  Child."     Chaps.  XVIII,  XIX,  XX,  XXI. 
Dexter  and  Garlick's  "  Psychology  in  the  Schoolroom."     Chap.  XXII. 
Colvin's  "The  Learning  Process."     Chaps.  Ill,  IV. 
Compayre's  "  Psychology  Applied  to  Education."     Chap.  XI. 
Home's     "  Psychological     Principles     of     Education."     Chaps.     XXVI, 

XXIX,  XXX,  XXXI,  XXXII,  XXXIII,  XXXIV. 
Bolton's  "Principles  of  Education."     Chap.  XXVII. 
Rosenkranz's  "Philosophy  of  Education."     Chaps.  II,  XIV,  XV,  XVI, 

XVII. 
Munsterberg's  "  Psychology  and  the  Teacher."     Chap.  XX. 
Froebel's  "Education  of  Man."     Pages  60,  61. 
Adlers  "  Moral  Instruction  of  Children."     Chap.  V. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

PLAY,  PLAYGROUNDS,  ATHLETICS 

Play  is  the  original  form  of  animal  activit}',  so  much  is 
this  so  that  play  has  now  become  an  instinctive  and  promi- 
nent trait  of  all  of  the  higher  forms  of  animal  life.  The 
greater  the  vitality  and  power  of  locomotion,  the  stronger  is 
the  instinct  of  play  present  in  the  organism.  Play  is  nat- 
ural ;  it  is  nature's  method  of  getting  exercise  and  exercise 
is  a  basic  requirement  in  animals  for  health  and  growth. 
It  was  Lamarck  who  revived  the  old  Grecian  biological  prin- 
ciple known  as  "  The  Law  of  Use "  and  wrote,  "  use 
strengthens,  disuse  impairs  and  abuse  (misuse)  destroys." 
It  was,  it  may  be  assumed  implicitly  intended  that  this  use 
was  to  take  place  in  the  open  air,  though  the  law  would 
still  be  valid  without  meeting  this  condition.  At  any  rate 
to  produce  the  best  results  use,  exercise  or  play  must  be  per- 
formed in  the  open  air  and  sunshine.  Tests  have  proved 
that  so  vital  is  the  need  of  sunshine  for  growing  and  living 
organisms  and  so  thoroughgoing  is  this  need  in  nature  that 
all  forms  of  plant  life  have  acquired  the  power  through  its 
ages  of  strugggle  for  existence  of  extending  its  growth  in 
any  and  all  directions  in  order  to  reach  the  life  and  growth 
giving  element,  the  sunshine.  Plants  left  without  it  soon 
die,  while  animals  have  been  known  to  become  inert,  help- 
less, unformed  masses  of  flesh  without  developed  bony  tissue, 
incapable  of  locomotion,  when  denied  the  full  and  free  ac- 
cess to  sunshine  and  fresh  air.  Physiology  has  in  detail 
told  how  the  chemical  (actinic)  actions  of  the  sun's  rays 
accelerate  the  production  of  red  corpuscles  (haemoglobin) 
and  also  of  the  white  corpuscles  (leucocytes),  the  former  of 
which  administer  to  the  upbuilding  processes  of  the  body 
(cell  formation),  while  the  latter  administers  to  the  process 
of  resistance  of  the  organism  to  attacks  from  various  de- 

367 


868  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

structive  elements  in  the  environment.  In  other  words  red 
corpuscles  enable  growth  and  white  corpuscles  enable  re- 
sistance to  the  ravages  of  disease.  Fresh  air  contains  oxy- 
gen. Oxygen  is  necessary  for  the  animal  processes  in  which 
the  organic  cells  appropriate  and  perform  that  recomposition 
of  matter  known  as  combustion  by  which  the  heat  of  the 
body  is  generated  and  the  food  substances  reduced  to  their 
elements  and  made  assimilable  by  the  various  tissues  of  the 
bod}r.  But  apart  from  these  physical  and  chemical  proper- 
ties of  air  and  sunlight,  there  are  psycho-physical  effects 
in  play  that  are  equal,  if  not  superior  to,  the  influence  of 
play.  In  the  first  place  it  brings  about  effective  muscular 
coordination  and  quick  response  to  stimuli.  In  its  higher 
forms  it  demands  accurate  and  deliberate  thinking  under  a 
degree  of  nervous  tension  calculated  to  upset  the  best  mental 
poise  and  balance.  It  often  requires  self-restraining,  when 
the  tendency  to  self-expression  is  greatest.  In  the  young, 
play  is  especially  to  be  commended  for  its  aid  to  muscular 
coordination.  The  inability  of  the  young  to  properly  direct 
the  motions  of  their  bodies  and  limbs  and  to  produce  rapid 
and  energetic  motion  is  characteristic  of  all  of  them.  If, 
then,  play  did  nothing  else  but  this,  it  would  have  served  a 
large  need  in  animal  life  and  motor  economy.  Especially 
is  this  effect  valuable  in  such  young  as  are  by  nature  slug- 
gish in  bodily  movements  and  dullards  in  mental  processes. 
Play  is  by  nature  pleasurable.  Biologically  this  would  prob- 
ably be  explained  as  due  to  the  fact  that  play  tends  to  the 
prolongation  of  life  through  the  extension  of  all  living  ac- 
tivities, for  according  to  the  pleasure-pain  economy  in  na- 
ture that  which  is  pleasurable  tends  to  promote  life  and  its 
activities,  while  that  which  is  painful  tends  to  demote  life 
and  its  activities.  In  other  words  it  seems  that  there  is  in 
nature  an  inherent  demand  for  voluntary  exercise.  Growing 
organisms  have  a  surplus  of  energy  which  must  be  gotten 
rid  of  in  order  that  the  organs  may  be  free  to  create  more 
energy,  the  creation  of  which  is  life,  health  and  strength  to 
it.  Unless  this  energy  is  used  up  it  clogs  the  system,  ener- 
vates the  organs  and  reduces  their  action.  This  may  become 
so  serious  as  to  bring  on  disease  and  even  death,  for  the  crea- 


Play,  Playgrounds,  Athletics  869 

tion  of  this  energy  involves  destruction  of  cells  and  the  filling 
of  the  body  with  waste  matter,  while  the  dissipation  of  it 
involves  the  removal  of  all  effete  matter  and  the  building 
up  of  new  and  better  cell  substances. 

Demands  for  Recess  and  Playgrounds.  Because  of  the 
evils  of  disorder  and  the  disruption  in  the  school  program 
many  educators  have  been  led  to  advocate  the  abolishment 
of  the  recess  period  from  the  daily  program  and  offer  for 
it  a  substitute  in  the  form  of  calisthenics  and  gymnastics. 
But  the  recess  is  the  chief  means  that  the  school  adopts  for 
offering  opportunities  for  play  to  the  child.  From  a  third 
to  a  half  of  the  child's  waking  hours  are  spent  in  the  school- 
room. To  attempt  to  use  up  this  much  of  the  child's 
waking  hours  without  provision  for  play  in  the  open  air  is 
dangerous  to  the  health  of  the  child.  'Tis  true  that  the 
work  and  discipline  of  the  school  seem  to  some  extent  to 
justify  this  attitude  and  that  economy  of  time  and  energy 
seem  to  make  it  imperative.  But  is  not  the  first  demand 
upon  all  living  organisms  life  and  health?  From  this  view- 
point indoor  calesthenics  and  gymnastics  are  a  poor  sub- 
stitute for  free  play  in  the  open  air,  especially  since  it  has  been 
shown  wherein  indoor  exercise  fails  to  satisfy  the  demands 
of  health  because  of  the  lack  here  of  the  direct  effect  of  the 
sun's  rays  which  play  such  an  important  part  in  the  formation 
of  the  blood  corpuscles,  even  granting  that  under  the  circum- 
stances air  for  the  schoolroom  can  be  obtained  of  the  same 
healthful  properties  as  that  in  the  open,  a  proposition  which 
in  itself  is  to  be  seriously  questioned.  Art  has  succeeded 
in  many  instances  in  improving  upon  nature,  but  this  is  one 
instance  where  there  would  be  everything  except  improve- 
ment. For  according  to  Jacob  Riis,  "  To  play  in  the  sun- 
light is  a  child's  right  and  it  is  not  to  be  cheated  out  of  it. 
And  when  it  is  cheated  out  of  it  it  is  not  the  child  but  the 
community  that  is  robbed  of  that  beside  which  all  its  wealth 
is  but  tinsel  and  trash.  For  men,  not  money  make  a  country 
great,  and  joyless  children  do  not  make  good  men."  Ages 
of  experience  has  made  this  sentiment  the  embodiment  of  all 
progressive  national  and  educational  ideals.  Thus  play  is 
not  a  luxury  of  the  school  to  be  cast  aside  when  necessities 


S70  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

are  in  demand,  but  it  is  a  necessary  form  of  self-expression 
even  though  it  be  primitive.  It  is  like  many  other  natural 
processes  only  capable  of  its  best  when  it  springs  from  the 
soul  spontaneously  and  involuntarily.  To  direct  attention 
to  it  in  detail  voluntarily  is  to  rob  it  of  its  chief  joy  and 
source  of  good.  To  attempt  consciously  to  make  play 
pleasurable  and  center  the  mind  upon  the  effort  is  to  rob  it 
of  the  very  element  that  gives  it  its  chief  value. 

The  chief  source  of  opposition  to  play  is  the  sentiment 
come  down  to  us  from  the  middle  ages  a  relic  of  religious 
ascetism,  which  belittled  the  body  and  all  bodily  functions 
and  advocated  its  neglect  and  even  abuse.  The  reaction 
against  this  kind  of  practical  philosophy  is  growing  stronger 
every  day.  To-day  the  tendency  everywhere  is  to  recognize 
and  even  to  magnify  the  body  and  bodily  functions.  Spencer 
has  shown  in  detail  how  the  strain  of  each  generation  has  be- 
come greater  and  the  demand  for  larger  earnings  more  im- 
perious until  the  lack  of  spare  hours  for  recreation  (play) 
has  not  only  so  weakened  each  generation  that  its  capacity 
for  the  enjoyment  of  life  is  lessened,  but  that  it  leaves  them 
so  depleted  mentally  and  physically  that  their  offspring  come 
into  life  less  prepared  for  its  strain  and  its  demands,  espe- 
cially when  the  preponderance  of  evidence  seems  to  indicate 
that  those  demands  will  be  greater  upon  the  later  generation 
than  it  was  upon  the  earlier.  Investigation  has  shown 
that  overwork,  improper  food,  lack  of  rest  and  bodily  ex- 
ercise in  the  open  air  and  sunlight  makes  an  opening  for  the 
successful  attack  of  every  form  of  disease,  and  that  bad 
housing,  improper  air  and  sunlight  is  the  cause  of  nearly  all 
the  epidemics  and  contagions.  So  that  just  as  a  grocer's 
bill  by  most  of  us  would  be  more  willingly  paid  than  a  doctor's 
bill,  so  a  playground  should  be  more  willingly  furnished  to 
the  young  and  old  than  a  sanitarium  for  tuberculosis  and 
consumption.  Statistics  go  to  show  also  that  there  is  a 
relation  between  crime  committed  by  individuals  and  the 
amount  of  access  they  have  to  playgrounds  and  opportunity 
for  play.  Having  discovered  this  the  "  International  Prison 
Congress  "  recommended  as  a  preventive  and  reducer  of 
crime  "  vast  additions  to  playgrounds  as  the  surest  preven- 


Play,  Playgrounds,  Athletics  371 

tion  of  juvenile  mischief  and  crime  and  as  affording  young 
people  places  where  they  may  learn  to  bear  defeat  with 
courage  and  success  with  modesty."  Along  the  same  line 
Governor  John  A.  Johnson  wrote  "  He  (the  boy)  must  have 
enough  of  recreation  and  pleasure  to  keep  the  vinegar  out 
of  his  nature  and  no  man  has  the  right  to  deny  his  children 
that." 

The  playground  and  games  both  for  young  and  old  fur- 
nish an  opportunity  for  the  players  and  those  observing  the 
pla}'  to  learn  the  various  weaknesses  in  human  nature,  both 
morally,  mentally  and  physically  as  nothing  else  will.  Pas- 
sions such  as  would  never  crop  out  elsewhere  will  appear 
in  the  vicissitudes  of  the  playgrounds,  selfishness,  vanity,  dis- 
honesty, disregard  for  individual  rights  and  for  law  with  a 
desire  for  order  all  show  themselves  in  ways  that  occasions 
elsewhere  do  not  often  serve  to  bring  to  the  surface.  Op- 
posite traits  and  qualities  also  come  out  on  the  playground, 
some  good  and  some  bad  which  a  whole  lifetime  otherwise 
might  not  bring  to  the  front.  From  the  viewpoint  of  the  state 
and  society  the  playing  of  games  is  a  wonderful  schooling 
for  the  child,  for  he  cannot  play  them  without  learning  sub- 
ordination and  respect  for  law  and  order  even  if  only  the 
laws  of  the  games  and  the  order  necessary  for  its  success- 
ful continuance.  Here,  too,  he  learns  the  first  full  effects 
of  unprejudiced  as  well  as  unrestrained  disapproval  of  his 
fellows  for  the  transgression  of  law  and  the  disturbance  of 
order.  For  every  game  has  its  laws  by  which  each  player 
must  abide  and  methods  according  to  which  he  plays.  In- 
deed, as  Gulick  has  well  said  "  The  play  life  of  a  people  in- 
dicates more  than  anything  else  its  vitality,  morals,  intelli- 
gence and  fitness  to  live."  Not  only  "  the  resisting  power 
of  the  body  can  be  kept  at  its  best  only  where  there  is  simple 
bodily  exercise  in  the  open  air,  but  the  good  nature  and 
cheerful  temperament  of  the  child  is  maintained  thereby." 
Another  good  side  of  play  is  that  there  is  no  process  in  the 
school  that  is  more  democratic.  On  the  playground  plebeian 
and  patrician,  rich  and  poor  alike  meet  side  by  side.  It  is 
a  test  of  birth,  but  not  of  birth  rated  upon  social  standing 
and  privilege,  but  upon  the  physical  and  intellectual  stand- 


Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

ing  of  the  family.  Neither  do  dollars  and  cents  nor  even 
formal  education  as  mere  book  knowledge,  and  culture  as 
superiority  in  fine  usage  and  contact  win  the  day.  The 
son  of  the  plebeian  is  here  on  equal  footing  with  the  son  of 
the  "  best  bloods."  Each  is  given  an  equal  chance  with  the 
other  and  the  son  of  the  patrician  soon  learns  here  that  there 
are  other  virtues  of  value  to  his  fellows  and  society  besides 
those  which  in  the  experience  of  the  home  he  has  been  led 
to  believe  rest  in  himslf  and  those  of  his  kind.  The  playing 
of  games  on  this  basis  of  equality  and  merit  has  taught  him 
a  new  lesson  in  life.  Here  play  is  a  natural  equalizer,  so- 
cializer  and  denationalizer.  It  makes  common  blood  of  all 
and  temporarily  at  least  unites  all  in  one  common  interest. 
Herein  lies  the  virtue  of  play.  This  is  the  good  that  the 
school  can  do  in  fostering  and  supervising  play  and  fur- 
nishing playgrounds  and  opportunities  for  play.  The  good 
that  the  school  can  do  society,  the  state  and  the  pupil  by 
offering  training  and  experience  in  play  is  obvious. 

Play  Versus  Schoolwork.  In  the  chapter  on  "  The  Daily 
Program  "  it  was  shown  that  play  had  a  decided  effect  upon 
the  work  of  a  school.  Of  course,  it  was  found  out  also  that 
play  to  some  extent  disorganized  and  broke  down  the  govern- 
ment and  discipline  of  the  school  and  broke  into  the  work 
of  the  day  to  some  extent.  But  besides  being  minor  this 
effect  was  negative.  Some  very  essential)  effects,  however, 
were  found.  It  was  found  out,  for  example,  that  the  bodily 
movements  in  the  open  air  accompanied  by  a  new  form  of 
mental  process  though  at  times  intense  purged  the  system 
of  many  physical  impurities  that  tended  to  clog  it  and  tax 
unnecessarily  the  vital  organs  in  their  functions,  thereby 
producing  sluggishness  and  fatigue;  that  it  increased  the 
vital  function  and  by  increasing  the  processes  of  deoxida- 
tion  used  up  much  of  the  food  products  collecting  in  the 
various  parts  of  the  digestive  tract  where  energy  was  gen- 
erated and  stored  away.  As  a  result  of  these  fruits  of  free 
bodily  exercise  in  the  open  air  and  sunlight  shortly  after  the 
recess  periods  the  available  bodily  energy  for  school  work 
was  seen  to  rise  markedly  second  only  to  that  found  present 
immediately  succeeding  the  opening  of  school  in  the  morning. 


Play,  Playgrounds,  AtMetics  373 

Observation  has  also  shown  that  the  activity  of  play  relieves 
especially  healthy  highly  energized  temperaments  of  surplus 
energy.  Surplus  energy  must  be  gotten  rid  of  and  if  it  is 
not  worked  off  in  one  way  it  will  manifest  itself  in  another. 
Such  children  must  be  allowed  more  freedom  than  others. 
An  occasional  run  in  the  schoolyard  or  a  new  form  of  school 
exercise  will  serve  to  quiet  such  a  one.  But  some  form  of 
expression  he  must  have.  The  pressure  from  within  is  too 
great  for  him  to  repress.  With  some  children  relief  from 
this  pressure  is  imperative  for  good  work  out  of  them.  In- 
deed teachers  may  at  times  find  necessar}7,  in  dealing  with 
a  class  of  such  pupils,  to  interrupt  a  regular  exercise  and 
have  gymnastics,  a  brief  moment  of  indoor  or  outdoor  recess 
to  relieve  the  general  tension.  An  experiment  of  this  kind 
will  generally  immediately  show  not  only  a  new  amount  of 
working  energy  but  also  a  new  working  spirit  in  the  child. 
This  condition  is  found  to  be  more  aggravated  on  some  days 
than  others.  Too,  it  is  often  noticeable  that  such  conditions 
are  more  frequent  and  serious  in  the  children  from  the  poorer 
districts  where  the  tendency  to  more  unregulated  diet  of 
coarse  and  highly  energizing  foods  in  unlimited  quantities 
prevails.  There  is  a  generally  prevailing  opinion  created 
through  long  years  of  observation  that  the  pupils  who  excel 
in  play  also  excel  in  schoolwork.  This  point  is  of  value  here 
not  only  because  it  shows  that  those  who  have  energy  for 
play  also  have  like  energy  for  work,  but  also  because  it 
shows  that  the  same  mental  powers,  muscular  coordination 
and  nervous  control  that  are  available  on  the  playground  are 
available  in  the  schoolroom  and  that  which  is  of  equal  or 
even  greater  importance,  that  the  skill  and  increased  control 
gained  in  the  play  of  games  is  spontaneously  applied  in  the 
exercises  and  work  of  the  school.  In  the  same  way  play  con- 
tributes to  individual  and  collective  success  of  the  social 
and  civic  body.  Not  only  is  the  skill  and  muscular  control 
gained  there  available  in  after  life  along  with  the  powers  of 
concentration,  endurance  and  the  arousing  of  new  and  allied 
interests,  but  the  experience  of  inferiority  and  superiority 
to  our  fellows  and  the  recognition  of  the  great  variety  of 
abilities  in  various  of  his  playmates  gives  him  greater  re- 


374  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

spect  for  them  while  at  the  same  time  teaching  him  just 
where  he  does  excel,  wherein  he  does  not  and  also  how  he 
may  improve  himself.  Too,  associations  and  friendships 
sometimes  started  through  incidents,  associations  and  cir- 
cumstances of  play  often  become  permanent  and  bring  much 
joy  and  comfort  to  each  of  the  persons  thus  related  through- 
out his  life  time.  He  also  learns  the  lesson  of  cooperation 
and  united  action,  and  experiences  keenly  the  appreciation 
of  his  play-fellows  where  he  contributes  his  full  share  to  the 
success  and  pleasures  of  the  game  as  well  as  receives  their 
disapproval  where  either  because  incapable  or  negligent  he 
fails  to  contribute  his  share  to  the  success  and  the  pleasure 
of  the  game.  For  play  not  only  brings  to  the  surface  in  the 
child  many  native  capacities  but  it  also  often  shows  one's 
various  inherent  weaknesses.  On  the  playground  also  chil- 
dren learn  valuable  lessons  in  ethics.  Not  the  theoretical 
ethics  of  the  academy  and  the  school,  but  the  ethics  of  every- 
day life.  All  games  have,  for  example,  their  prescribed 
rules  of  conduct  and  their  prescribed  penalties  for  non-per- 
formance or  attempted  breach  in  the  rules  of  the  game  for 
the  sake  of  unfair  advantage  in  the  performance  of  the 
various  parts  of  the  play.  These  must  all  be  adhered  to  and 
rigidly  enforced.  One  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  child- 
hood is  painful  simplicity  and  frankness.  The  mistakes 
made  or  wrongs  committed  in  the  game  are  denounced  by 
them  with  ruthless  indifference  to  the  amount  of  pain  in- 
flicted upon  the  unfortunate  guilty  ones.  The  fact  is,  in 
such  matters  children  too  often  prove  to  be  devoid  of  the 
consciousness  of  pain  as  it  affects  others.  It  is  only  later  in 
life  that  they  learn  to  smooth  over  ruffled  moods,  heal  wounds 
with  hurt-balm  or  condone  mistakes  and  wrongs  with  sweet 
words  and  soothing  manners.  Then,  too,  say  what  we  may, 
all  children  have  their  crude  sense  of  justice  and  their  own 
crude  code  of  morals  by  which  they  judge  and  condemn  mer- 
cilessly. In  this  system  as  administered  by  them,  those  of 
their  number  who  have  various  unsocial  tendencies  or  who 
practice  unfair  methods  in  play  soon  learn  the  sting  of  popu- 
lar disapproval.  In  the  games  of  play  each  learns  his  own 
rights  and  duties  and  whether  he  wishes  to  be  or  not  is  dele- 


Play,  Playgrounds,  Atldetics  375 

gated  his  rights  and  forced  to  perform  his  duties  by  the  opin- 
ion and  conduct  of  others.  While  it  is  a  commonplace  psy- 
chology that  a  weak  body  means  a  weak  will  and  weak  willing 
along  with  a  general  impairment  of  mental  faculties  no  al- 
lowance is  made  for  this  in  this  child  code  of  morals.  But 
although  all  of  these  complex  effects  are  going  on  at  the 
same  time  in  child  play  it  is  done  almost  unconsciously  and 
the  whole  soul  life  of  the  child  finds  unrestrained  expression 
in  play  thereby.  No  one  can  look  upon  a  group  of  children 
intently  at  play,  a  seething  running,  jumping,  laughing, 
shouting,  conglomerate  mass  and  not  see  that  there  is  a 
divinity  lurking  behind  it  all,  that  play  is  as  natural  as  life 
itself  to  the  young  and  as  necessary  to  their  growth  and  de- 
velopment as  food  and  drink. 

But  with  all  of  this  there  is  much  of  evil  in  play  and  much 
of  potent  good  in  it  which  if  left  uncontrolled  or  undirected 
may  be  wasted  or  may  even  be  turned  into  evil  and  do  harm. 
The  teacher  should  give  constant  attention  to  the  play  and 
the  children  at  play,  if  anything  like  the  best  results  are 
to  obtain.  Among  children  there  are  the  fractious,  selfish 
and  even  unsocial  individuals  who  will  prove  harmful  to 
the  other  members  of  the  group  and  to  the  playing  of  the 
game  itself.  Sometimes  it  will  be  best  to  let  him  run  abreast 
of  the  concentrated  opinion  of  his  fellows,  at  other  times 
this  may  be  dangerous  for  the  group  welfare,  whereupon 
a  strong  arm  from  the  outside  must  interfere.  This  strong 
arm  in  the  play  about  the  school  must  be  the  teacher  who 
should  always  be  at  hand  to  see  that  as  far  as  possible  the 
right  thing  is  done  at  the  right  time  and  that  the  innocent 
unoffending  and  often  the  weak  are  not  abused  or  outraged 
by  the  willful  and  selfish  strong.  In  schools  where  children 
of  various  ages  and  sizes  play  together  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  restrict  the  older  ones  in  their  play  in  order  to  pro- 
tect the  younger  and  weaker.  Oftentimes  also  unexpected 
freaks  in  play  crop  out  and  new  and  dangerous  games  may 
be  introduced  on  the  playgrounds  and  serious  harm  done 
in  the  playing  of  them  either  to  the  innocent  child  looking 
on  or  to  those  playing  the  game  if  the  teacher  be  not  on 
hand  then  and  there  to  stop  the  play  or  modify  it  so  as 


376  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

to  rob  it  of  its  dangerous  phase.  New  pupils  from  other 
towns  and  schools  often  bring  with  them  vices  and  currupt 
practices,  profanity  and  vulgarity  that  is  highly  contam- 
inating, if  not  discovered  early  and  rooted  out  with  a  strong 
hand.  This  the  teacher  can  only  do  by  his  constant  presence 
and  watchful  care.  In  all  of  this,  however,  it  is  not  in- 
tended that  the  teacher  should  attempt  to  officiate  and  in- 
terfere with  the  children  at  play.  Play  is  at  its  best  from 
the  viewpoint  of  health  for  the  child  and  self  expression  in 
play  most  natural  and  sincere  when  the  playing  is  undirected 
and  unrestricted  by  outside  authority,  that  is,  play  is  best 
when  it  is  spontaneous.  The  less  of  a  conscious  or  ex- 
ternally controlled  element  there  is  in  play  the  better  will 
be  the  results  accruing  therefrom  to  the  pupil.  The 
teacher  can  even  with  advantage  indulge  at  times  with  the 
children  in  their  play,  having  a  care  always  that  he  loses 
nothing  thereby  of  respect  or  high  regard  either  because 
of  his  ignorance  of  the  game  or  inability  to  perform  well 
that  which  he  attempts,  that  the  indulgence  be  not  so  fre- 
quent as  to  cost  him  his  dignity  or  the  act  to  lose  by  com- 
monness its  pleasure.  Play  is  democratic  as  we  have  said. 
It  is  for  all  of  the  pupils.  Oftentimes  in  play  there  are 
those  bolder  or  more  selfish  natures  who  would  crowd  others 
more  timid  and  less  competent  out  of  their  places  and  parts 
in  the  play  and  usurp  it  for  themselves.  On  the  other  hand 
there  are  those  bashful  selfconscious  pupils  who  hesitate 
and  are  even  inclined  to  refuse  to  take  part  in  the  game  for 
fear  that  they  may  not  be  wanted  or  that  they  may  not  be 
able  to  do  as  well  as  some  other,  because  of  which  they  may 
laugh  at  them  or  otherwise  hurt  their  feelings.  Then,  there 
are  the  restless  and  impatient  pupils  who  fret  and  chafe 
under  the  delay  in  teaching  the  others  the  fine  points  of  the 
game  or  play  which  they  themselves  have  been  even  more 
slow  to  comprehend,  but  which  they  now  know  well,  simply 
because  they  have  had  the  opportunities  of  playing  the  game 
and  learning  it  before.  For  all  of  these  conditions,  the 
teacher's  presence  on  the  playground  is  necessary  and  his 
tactful  guidance  and  direction  should  give  to  all  an  equal 
opportunity  to  learn  the  various  games  played  on  the  play- 


Play,  Playgrounds,  Athletics  377 

ground  and  to  exercise  tins  knowledge  on  an  equal  footing 
with  every  other  pupil. 

Play  and  Discipline.     There  is  still  another  side  of  play 
that  concerns  the  teacher  deeply.     Play  can  be  and  should 
be  made  to  have  a  decided  effect  upon  the  discipline  of  the 
school.     It  should  reduce  discipline  in  the  school  to  a  min- 
imum.    Comparatively  few,  if  any  children  are  bad  at  heart 
and  the  conception  of  them  that  would  make  them  so  is  funda- 
mentally wrong  and  bound  to  lead  to  serious  trouble,  if  not 
actual  failure  in  the  discipline  and  government  of  the  school. 
It  is  the  combination  of  conditions  of  health  and  environ- 
mental circumstances   in  play  that  combine  to  make  play 
helpful  in  school  government  and  discipline.     For  it  is  un- 
der the  restraint  and  repression  of  the  schoolroom  that  re- 
sults   in    fretting,    chafing,    and    restlessness   which   lead   to 
misconduct  and  afterwards  often  to   resentment,  when  un- 
proportionate  or  unfair  punishment  due  to  hastiness  or  mis- 
understanding on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  meted  out,  that 
most  of  the  trouble  in  the  schoolroom  begins.     Healthy  chil- 
dren are  brimful  of  energy.     This  energy  is  being  constantly 
added  to  throughout  the  normal  waking  hours  and  will  in- 
crease  to   the   "  explosion  point  "   unless   care  is   taken   to 
use  it  up.     This  energy  makes  child-life  very  expressive  and 
repression  of  this  tendency  to  expression  very  painful.     Play, 
in  the  first  place,  gives  full  opportunity  for  normal  expres- 
sion and  dissipation  of  this  energy.     In  the  second  place 
play  rests  the  organs  from  their  tension  and  reinvigorates 
the  body,  thereby  accelerating  the  vital  functions,  enabling 
the  body   to  purge  itself  of  impurities,   improve  the  blood 
and  enable  a  new  set  to  of  all  the  bodily  organs  to  their 
respective    functions.     The   teacher   who    fails    to    see   this 
demand  for  activity  in  the  young  is  in  serious  danger  of  error 
of  judgment  and  resulting  mistreatment  of  them.     Schools, 
of  course,  must  be  orderly  and  children  must  be  obedient. 
But  when  a  child's  whole  physical  and  mental  life  is  pressing 
out  of  him  through  eyes,  tongue,  finger  tips,  body  and  limbs, 
restrictions  are  useless  unless  they  be  simply  directive,  not 
repressive.     At   such  times   the   tendency   to   action   is   too 
strong  to  be  successfully  suppressed  without  the  applica- 


378  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

tion  of  dangerously  strong  measures.  It  can  be  better  modi- 
fied and  redirected  into  other  channels  of  expression.  This 
condition  it  will  be  found  will  prevail  particularly  under 
such  circumstances  as  bright  days,  patron's  day,  show  day, 
etc.  On  such  occasions  longer  recesses  or  considerable 
abridgment  of  method  and  exercise  is  about  as  good  a  way 
to  overcome  the  threatening  difficulty  as  can  be  found.  All 
exercises  that  are  animating  and  full  of  action  are  under 
such  circumstances  to  be  especially  recommended.  By  this 
means  much  of  the  energy  that  would  otherwise  go  to  plan 
out  and  execute  mischief  may  be  dissipated.  What  this  fails 
to  use  up  the  longer  recess  periods  at  such  times  will  care 
for.  Children  who  have  become  dull  and  indifferent  because 
their  systems  are  surcharged  with  energy  and  so  clogged 
with  effete  and  foreign  matter  that  the  lagging  blood  fails 
to  remove  it,  spontaneously  awaken  on  the  playground  and 
after  having  gotten  rid  of  the  congested  bodily  state,  re- 
turn to  the  schoolroom  awakened  and  ready  for  the  school- 
work.  So  that  the  playground  by  using  up  surplus  energy 
makes  possible  an  easy  control  and  ready  direction  of  the 
remaining  energy  into  the  desired  channels  of  activity. 

Playground.  All  of  this  exploitation  of  the  good  traits 
of  play  and  its  value  to  the  school  child  and  the  school  work 
has  been  done  under  the  assumption  that  there  is  a  suitable 
place  provided  by  the  school  authorities  on  which  the  child 
may  romp  and  play  and  give  full  expression  to  his  physical 
and  mental  nature.  This  assumption  is  not  without  grounds. 
Few  public  schools  to-day,  both  those  for  boys  and  those 
for  girls  are  without  some  space  provided  as  playgrounds 
for  the  school  children.  Too,  there  are  very  few  school  au- 
thorities who  have  not  come  to  learn  the  value  of  playgrounds 
for  the  health,  discipline  and  working  efficiency  of  the  pu- 
pils. And  if  the  present  general  agitation  for  proper  and 
adequate  playgrounds  for  the  young  continues  it  will  not 
be  long  before  the  pressure  brought  to  bear  will  cause  suf- 
ficient funds  for  the  purpose  to  be  put  into  the  proper  chan- 
nels to  provide  these  grounds.  Not  only  schools  but  cities 
too,  catching  the  spirit  of  the  times  and  appreciating  its 
effect  in  making  good  citizens   are  providing  playgrounds 


Play,  Playgrounds,  Athletics  379 

for  the  children  where  they  may  gather  in  the  cities  removed 
from  the  centers  of  vice,  dust  and  grime,  and  find  healthy, 
wholesome  play  and  joyful  occupation,  so  that  Satan  may 
not  find  less  innocent  occupation  for  them.  There  are  to- 
day in  every  state,  societies  which  have  branch  locals  in 
every  city  of  any  consequence  whose  sole  purpose  it  is  to  see 
that  proper  playground  facilities  are  provided  for  the  chil- 
dren of  the  town.  Playgrounds  are  primarily  for  play 
and  not  for  ornament.  This  fact  is  generally  appreciated 
for  boys,  but  too  often  it  is  forgotten  for  girls.  Girls' 
playgrounds  often  are  chiefly  ornamental,  so  much  so  that  in 
most  cases  there  is  little  room  for  free  play  for  fear  harm 
may  come  to  the  oftentimes  expensive  ornamentation.  Most 
girls'  playgrounds  are  thus  reduced  almost  entirely  to  highly 
ornamental  parks  and  promenades.  Here  the  fault  is  com- 
mitted, however  much  it  is  meet  that  the  esthetic  sense  of 
girls  be  cultivated,  of  allowing  the  means  to  an  end  to  usurp 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  end  itself.  And  as  a  result 
instead  of  girls  being  given  an  opportunity  for  free  and  full 
expression  of  physical  and  mental  states  in  play  they  are 
constrained  to  quietude  and  hampered  activity,  they,  who  of 
all  children,  should  be  given  freedom  of  activity.  There  is 
at  present,  however,  a  tendency  arising  to  give  to  the  girl 
increased  access  to  her  own  in  this  sphere  with  equal  oppor- 
tunity for  self-activity,  self-expression  and  freedom  of  men- 
tal and  bodily  development  and  freedom  in  all  forms  of 
athletics. 

Plays  for  Schoolroom  and  Playground.  While  the  num- 
ber of  plays  that  may  be  indulged  in  in  the  schoolroom  and 
on  the  playground  is  large,  here  again  as  in  all  other  phases 
of  the  schoolwork,  just  what  games  will  be  possible  in  the 
schoolroom  and  on  the  playgrounds  and  what  success  will 
attend  their  playing  will  depend  almost  entirely  upon  the 
ingenuity,  tact,  resourcefulness  and  general  disciplinary 
ability  of  the  teacher.  The  age  of  the  pupils  and  the  general 
advantages  afforded  by  the  schoolroom  and  the  playground 
in  facilities  for  a  variety  of  plays  and  games  will  also  come 
in  for  some  consideration  as  to  their  ultimate  effects. 

In  the  schoolroom  the  bean  bag  games  (bean  bag  target, 


380  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

passing  the  bean  bag,  dropping  the  bean  bag,  and  other 
miscellaneous  bean  bag  games  such  as  line  throwing,  drop- 
ping the  bag,  circle  throwing,  catching  bags,  and  tag  with 
the  beanbag)  can  be  readily  played  and  ordinarily  the  whole 
school  can  take  part  in  the  game.  If  this  is  impossible,  the 
school  may  be  divided  into  groups  and  the  groups  may  play 
in  relays,  the  off-groups  forming  the  crowd  of  onlookers 
while  the  other  group  is  playing.  Marches,  too,  form  a 
large  part  of  inside  play.  There  is  the  game  of  soldiers 
in  which  the  whole  school  may  join,  the  officers  being  chosen 
either  by  the  teacher  or  the  school,  or  by  the  school  assisted 
and  directed  by  the  teacher,  or  the  teacher  may  choose  them 
on  a  basis  of  merit  in  schoolwork,  announcement  to  this  end 
having  been  previously  made.  Of  all  the  marches  the  fancy 
marches  headed  by  the  so-called  "  Grand  March  "  closely 
followed  by  the  various  folk  dances.  Next  to  marches  from 
the  viewpoint  of  the  number  who  can  take  part  come  charades 
and  magic  music.  Black  board  relay  exercises  may  be  in- 
dulged in  in  any  form  of  school  exercises  both  for  the  purpose 
of  arousing  interest  and  enthusiasm  and  for  the  mere  health 
value  as  play.  Quoits  also  make  a  good  indoor  game  the 
pegs  for  the  rings  being  immovably  set  in  movable  boards. 
There  are  quite  a  number  of  intellectual  and  guessing  games 
that  are  adopted  to  indoor  use  which  may  be  used  to  further 
the  school  work  especially  arithmetic,  geography,  history  and 
literature,  as  well  as  serve  to  satisfy  the  interest  of  play  and 
resultingly  the  health  of  the  pupil.  Some  of  the  principal 
intellectual  games  are  "  Packed  My  Grandfather's  Trunk," 
"  Buzz,"  "  Simon  Says,"  "  Prince  of  Paris  "  and  many 
others  that  partake  of  the  nature  of  competition,  such  as 
"  Spelling  Down  "  and  "  Pronouncing  Down."  These  last 
two  may  be  extended  to  cover  "  Reading  Down,"  "  Reciting 
Down "  and  almost  any  other  form  of  school  exercise. 
Close  to  the  intellectual  games  are  the  guessing  games  which 
are  also  of  a  semi-intellectual  nature  and  by  special  effort 
and  ingenuity  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  may  be  made  almost 
wholly  so.  Some  of  the  more  common  guessing  games  are 
"Kingdom,"  "Bird,  Beast  and  Foul,"  "Omnibus"  and 
"  The  Ship  Sails."     Where  desirable  all  of  these  games  may 


Play,  Playgrounds,  Athletics  381 

be  varied  to  suit  the  occasion  and  modified  so  as  to  cover 
any  kind  of  class  work  which  the  teacher  wishes  to  take  up 
in  games.  There  is  little  if  any  lesson  content  such  as  can- 
not be  made  the  subject  of  a  guessing  game  and  many  form 
subjects  also  may  be  thus  used. 

While  most  of  the  games  named  above  under  the  head  of 
games  for  indoor  play  may  be  played  outside  with  equal  ease, 
there  are  besides  these  special  games  which  because  of  the 
room  they  require,  the  amount  of  violent  activity  and  the 
size  and  hardness  of  the  instruments  used  in  playing  them 
are  especially  adapted  to  play  out  of  doors  and  in  fact 
can  only  be  safely  indulged  in  there.  Strictly  indoor  games 
are  chiefly  for  girls  and  small  children  and  when  taken  out- 
side, especially,  are  restricted  to  these.  In  consideration 
of  these  and  any  other  games  for  indoors  in  comparison  with 
outdoor  games  it  will  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  remember 
the  disadvantages  of  indoor  games  of  any  and  all  kinds 
and  the  fact  that  free  and  undirected  (not  uncontrolled,  but 
spontaneous)  play  produces  the  best  results  both  on  mind 
and  body.  It  is  granted,  as  a  matter  of  fact  that  it  will 
be  advantageous  at  times,  if  for  no  other  reason  than  be- 
cause of  a  lack  of  time  to  have  indoor  games.  When  these 
take  the  form  of  play  the  results  are  better  for  health,  in - 
vigoration  and  schoolwork,  than  when  they  are  mere  exer- 
cises such  as  calisthenics  and  gymnastics.  Besides,  where 
there  are  even  covered  grounds  for  exercise  it  will  be  found 
necessary  under  some  weather  conditions  to  have  whatever 
exercise  is  given  pupils  indoors  under  the  proper  conditions  of 
protection  from  cold,  rain  and  snow. 

Of  the  strictly  outdoor  games  none  are  more  common 
than  the  various  ball  games.  "  America's  National  Sport," 
baseball,  stands  at  the  head  of  these,  though  the  danger  to 
other  children  running  around  the  school  grounds  in  their 
own  individual  forms  of  play,  the  size  of  the  grounds,  the 
danger  to  window  lights  in  the  school  building  and  neighbor- 
ing houses  together  with  various  risks  and  inconveniences 
make  it  hardly  a  practical  game  in  most  school  playgrounds, 
especially  in  larger  cities.  Besides  baseball  there  are  other 
ball  games  that  may  be  played  in  the  open  air.     Among 


382  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

them  and  in  the  order  of  their  popularity  and  numbers  of  in- 
dividuals who  indulge  in  them,  are,  football  (which  in  some 
places  is  under  the  ban)  basket  ball,  volley  ball,  hard  ball, 
racket  ball,  cricket,  captain  ball,  dodge  ball,  long  ball,  pass 
ball,  school  ball,  bounce  ball,  association  ball  (a  form  of 
football  which  in  some  schools  has  replaced  football),  "  Ante 
over,"  lay  ball,  cross  ball  and  many  others  too  numerous 
to  mention.  Next  to  ball  games  on  the  American  playground 
are  the  tag  games  held  as  strictly  such.  Among  these  we 
have  cross-tag,  prisoner's  base,  king's  land,  chain  tag,  wood 
tag,  poison  tag,  shadow  tag,  robber's  tag,  wet  and  dry 
land  tag,  pom-pom-pullaway,  blacktown,  Chinese  wall,  for- 
feit tag  and  school  tag. 

Tag  games  are  appropriate  for  school  play  because  of  the 
fact  that  they  are  very  simple,  offer  a  moderate  amount  of 
activity,  and  afford  an  opportunity  for  many  to  indulge  in 
play  at  one  time  without  any  great  inconvenience  and  self- 
restraint.  As  a  general  thing,  however,  tag  games  cannot 
well  be  indulged  in  by  both  boys  and  girls  unless  they  are 
small  boys  and  girls.  The  older  boys  are  generally  too 
swift  of  foot  and  rough  for  girls  and  small  boys.  This 
argument  though,  loses  some  of  its  force,  because  with  some 
consideration  it  might  be  raised  against  most  of  the  outdoor 
games  and  many  of  the  indoor  games.  Leap  frog,  foot-and- 
a-half,  jump-for-down,  imitation,  advancing  statues,  fox  and 
geese,  hawk  and  chickens,  ducks  on  a  rock,  are  good  games 
quite  similar  to  tag  games,  but  which  are  restricted  mostly 
to  smaller  groups,  the  first  three  being  especially  adapted  to 
older  boys  while  the  others  are  more  appropriate  for  the 
smaller  boys  or  with  mixed  groups  of  both  small  boys  and 
girls.  Marbles  such  as  line  lagging,  ring  lagging,  purga- 
tory, bull's  ring,  eye  dropping  are  other  favorite  quiet  games 
with  bo3^s  and  some  girls.  The  question  of  "  playing  for 
keeps  "  in  the  game  of  marbles  has  brought  a  moral  phase 
into  the  playing  of  the  game  under  the  supervision  of  the 
school  which  has  caused  it  to  be  forbidden  in  many  instances. 
This  method  of  playing  being  actually  gambling,  a  habit 
which  the  school  can  hardly  afford  to  foster  even  if  it  be  only 
in  play. 


Play,  Playgrounds,  Athletics  383 

Racing  games  such  as  dashes,  relays  (single  and  com- 
bined), hurdles,  obstacle-races,  potato  race,  egg  race,  sack- 
race  and  wheelbarrow  race  are  good  sports  which  one  could 
hardly  with  correctness  call  games.  They  are,  however, 
where  not  overtaxing  (a  very  prominent  danger)  a  pleasure 
to  all.  Ordinarily,  races  generally  are  over  distances  of 
from  forty  to  two  hundred  yards,  though  they  may  be  over 
even  longer  distances.  Where  not  too  violent  no  game  is 
more  exhilarating  than  is  racing  and  few,  if  any,  have  the 
generally  tonic  effect  on  all  muscles  and  internal  organs  that 
racing  has  upon  them.  These  plays  are  mentioned  only  as 
a  few  of  the  many  forms  of  play  exercises  known  to  the  school. 
The  fact  is  the  games  known  and  available  for  use  in  the 
schoolroom  and  on  the  school  playground  are  so  numerous 
as  not  even  to  allow  one  to  even  enumerate  them  all  in  a 
treatise  of  this  kind.  These  that  have  been  mentioned  are 
presumed  to  be  worthy  of  consideration  because  they  are 
simple  and  require  but  little  apparatus  except  perhaps  such 
as  each  teacher  or  pupil  can  easily  furnish  for  himself.  The 
list  given  here  could  be  and  is  intended  only  as  an  outline 
which  may  be  extended  or  modified  by  the  teacher  to  suit  his 
local  schoolroom  and  playground  conditions.  Since  the  agi- 
tation for  physical  education  has  spread  and  the  subject 
of  play  has  been  studied  in  its  relation  to  human  health,  hap- 
piness, schoolwork,  good  citizenship,  strong  manhood,  gen- 
eral living  and  working  efficiency  and  vagrancy  and  crime 
there  have  sprung  up  everywhere  playground  associations, 
schools  which  teach  play  and  the  management  and  manipula- 
tion of  playground  apparatus.  Along  with  this  school  au- 
thorities have  fitted  out  playgrounds  where  many  new  forms 
of  play  may  be  enjoyed.  Some  schools  even  have  gym- 
nasiums whereby  the  amount  of  varied  playing  is  increased 
many  times  over. 

Athletics.  Athletics  reduced  almost  to  a  formal  system 
of  play,  games  and  contests  have  taken  the  place  of  directed 
and  controlled  play.  Athletics  as  thus  organized  constitute 
the  chief  fault,  if  fault  it  may  be  called,  of  the  American 
system  of  pla}\  Athletics  having  in  mind  competitive  con- 
tests look  more  to  the  training  and  skill  of  a  chosen  few 


384  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

rather  than  to  the  healthful  play  and  training  of  the  pupils 
as  a  whole.  It  produces  a  few  magnificent  specimens  of 
physical  manhood  capable  of  great  feats  in  power  and  en- 
durance but  neglects  the  masses  of  the  pupils  almost  entirely. 
It  also  aims  to  pick  those  already  advanced  in  skill  and  power 
and  in  the  given  games  thus  omitting  another  large  portion 
of  the  school  body.  It  has  as  a  basis  group  rivalry  in  con- 
tradistinction to  individual  rivalry  which  play  aims  to  de- 
velop. The  group  to  be  benefited  by  athletics  may  be  one 
class  or  grade,  but  it  is  more  often  one  school  as  pitted 
against  another  in  a  contest.  Athletics  undoubtedly  bring 
out  individual  and  school  traits  and  good  qualities  that 
never  could  be  realized  otherwise.  But  it  is  a  criticism  upon 
it  that  since  it  neglects  the  masses  for  the  favored  few  in  its 
training  and  development  it  has  in  many  cases  assumed  too 
important  a  role  in  the  work  of  the  school.  Too  often  it  has 
been  forgotten  that  athletics  constitute  a  means  of  educa- 
tion and  that,  too,  a  prominent  secondary  means,  and  is 
not  in  educational  work  an  end  in  itself.  Athletics  has  in 
most  if  not  all  of  the  larger  institutions  assumed  enormous 
proportions.  So  much  so  that  its  good  for  education  has 
at  times  been  seriously  called  into  question.  The  long  train- 
ing season,  the  training  table,  the  special  quarters  and  the 
expenditure  of  large  sums  of  money  for  paraphernalia,  equip- 
ment and  grounds  are  some  of  the  more  dangerous  sides  of 
athletics  at  their  worst.  In  addition  they  turn  the  ideals 
of  life  into  a  light  frivolous  channel  and  make  play  an  end 
in  life  instead  of  a  means  to  an  end.  Athletics  are  also 
patronized  and  followed  by  a  wild  and  dissolute  element  of 
loafers  and  idlers  who  seek  acquaintance  and  friendship  with 
the  players  mostly  for  monetary  advantages  which  often- 
times, however,  leads  to  seducing  the  players  and  leading 
them  off  from  the  sober  paths  of  living,  into  the  unwholesome 
and  corrupt  paths.  Still  athletics  are  not  to  be  condemned 
or  abandoned,  but  the  rather  freed  from  its  bad  practices. 
They  satisfy  from  one  viewpoint,  it  is  justly  claimed,  the 
primitive  instinct  of  combat  and  racial  enmity  in  man  and 
represent  a  refined  tone  of  heroism  and  hero  worship.  It  is 
also  probable  that  the  natural  instinct  in  man  to  struggle 


Play,  Playgrounds,  Athletics  385 

for  superiority  and  survival  is  prominent  in  the  emotion  that 
causes  him  to  foster  and  encourage  athletic  contests.  But 
whether  this  be  true  or  not  certain  it  is  that  the  pleasure 
men  take  in  athletics  is  deep  seated  if  not  fundamental  in 
their  natures.  Equally  certain  is  it  that  the  present  foot- 
ball game,  for  example,  when  at  its  worst  was  a  gratifying 
substitute  for  the  battles  and  fisticuffs  resulting  in  loss  of 
limb  and  often  of  life  that  used  to  result  when  rival  factions 
of  the  same  or  rival  schools  met  whether  by  previous  arrange- 
ment or  by  accident.  It  will  also  not  be  denied  that  athletic 
contests,  if  kept  on  a  high  plane  of  honesty,  fair  play  and 
chivalry,  all  of  which  can  be  accomplished  under  good  man- 
agement, will  improve  both  the  individual  and  the  group, 
morally.  Valuable  lessons  in  the  evils  of  lying  and  cheating 
may  be  had  all  through  the  game,  while  lessons  in  cooperation 
and  self  subordination  are  presented  also  throughout  the 
game.  It  is  up  to  the  management  at  all  times  to  insist 
upon  everything  connected  with  athletics  being  open  and  "  on 
the  square."  Where  confidence,  good  will  and  ability  go 
hand  in  hand  an  athletic  contest  is  a  source  of  much  joy, 
whether  it  be  the  desire  for  evidence  of  skill,  strength  or  even 
warfare,  whose  satisfaction  creates  the  joy.  Disposition  to 
rebel,  to  use  profane  language,  to  be  brutal,  even  to  bet,  all 
will  appear  here  and  must  be  mastered.  But  with  all  of  the 
good  that  athletics  may  do  both  for  the  individual  and  the 
school,  it  must  never  be  forgotten  that  they  are  secondary 
to  the  school  and  its  work.  The  schoolwork  comes  first  and 
athletics  afterwards.  No  kind  of  schoolwork  should  be 
materially  neglected  for  athletics.  Children  soon  become 
turned  from  the  work  of  the  school  to  the  work  of  the  play- 
ground of  the  school.  For  the  school  therefore  to  lend  any 
considerable  aid  to  this  natural  tendency  inherent  in  all 
growing,  moving  things,  would  be  dangerous  to  its  welfare 
and  ultimate  success.  Many  an  otherwise  promising  young 
man  and  boy  has  had  his  schoolwork  and  future  life  ruined 
by  injudicious  indulgence  in  athletic  activity.  Whoever  may 
be  concerned,  no  plea  of  school  pride,  or  athletic  enthusiasm 
should  be  allowed  to  come  between  the  pupil  and  his  school- 
work,  even  if  he  has  to  give  up  athletics  entirely.     Another 


386  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

pregnant  evil  in  athletics  is  the  partisan  spirit  it  develops. 
While  school  pride  and  patriotism  all  have  their  value  and 
place  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  over-ride  the  nobler  ele- 
ments of  the  contesting  spirit.  No  better  rule  can  be  laid 
down  than  the  golden  rule,  "  Do  unto  others  as  you  would 
that  they  should  do  unto  you."  The  desire  to  win  should 
never  crowd  out  of  one  the  desire  to  be  fair,  honest  and 
manly.  Victory  in  a  contest  is  worth  much,  but  it  is  not 
everything  nor  is  it  worth  everything.  A  mind  that  will 
consent  to  stoop  to  means  unfair  or  foul  in  an  athletic  con- 
test can  with  sufficient  pressure  be  brought  to  consent  to  the 
same  in  other  affairs  of  life.  The  onlooking  crowd  is  often- 
times responsible  for  such  an  attitude  in  the  players,  but  it 
is  the  duty  of  the  management  to  rule  out  all  such  attempts 
at  unfairness  and  cheating,  even  if  it  costs  the  forfeiture 
loss  or  even  breaking  up  of  the  game.  The  management  may 
not  be  able  at  all  times  to  control  the  crowd  that  comes  to 
see  an  athletic  contest,  nor  perhaps  even  the  presence  of 
vicious  and  criminal  elements  in  the  crowd,  but  it  can  and 
should  by  ever}7  means  possible  show  to  all  contestants  that 
it  believes  in  and  will  enforce  high  standards  in  its  contests, 
vouchsafing  honesty  and  fair  play  rigorously  to  home  and 
visiting  team  alike. 

While  athletics  are  for  the  relatively  few,  they  require 
more  playground  and  equipment  than  the  ordinary  games 
that  are  played  on  the  school  grounds.  To  a  great  extent 
in  our  educational  system  athletics  appear  in  the  high  school, 
colleges  and  universities  as  a  successor  to  play  in  the  public 
schools,  while  the  athletic  field  takes  the  place  of  the  play- 
ground. Just  as  most  of  the  public  schools  have  to  more 
or  less  extent  adequate  playgrounds  and  where  they  are  not 
provided  at  present  are  being  constantly  added  to  the 
building  equipment,  so  the  high  schools,  colleges  and  uni- 
versities are  mostly  provided  with  an  adequate  athletic  field 
and  where  such  is  not  present  they  are  being  rapidly  sup- 
plied. In  the  grades  of  the  public  schools,  however,  even 
though  in  many  cases  much  prominence  is  given  to  athletics 
and  athletic  contests,  especially  in  football,  baseball  and 
basket  ball,  grounds  for  these  games  are  less  often  main- 


Play,  Playgrounds,  Athletics  387 

tained  for  the  contests  and  places  of  preparation  and  of  hold- 
ing the  contests  are  generally  to  be  had  only  elsewhere  than 
on  the  grounds.  This  is  practically  true  in  the  case  even 
of  the  larger  towns  and  cities,  where  the  ground  space  is 
high  and  the  public  mind  has  not  been  brought  around  to 
the  point  where  it  is  willing  to  consent  to  the  outlay  of  the 
funds  necessary  to  furnish  these  grounds  and  equipment. 
Besides  the  question  of  money  there  are  also  many  other 
potent  reasons  why  the  public  school  should  not  put  itself 
in  the  position  of  fostering  too  strongly  the  athletic  spirit. 
In  the  first  place  the  mind  of  the  young  is  too  unstable  and 
too  much  inclined  by  nature  to  fly  off  and  remain  off  from 
the  work  of  the  school.  And  in  the  second  place  the  public 
contest  because  M  the  high  degree  of  impressibility  of  youth, 
would  probably  have  more  lasting  effect  upon  them  for  evil. 
Aside  from  these  athletics  seem  to  be  more  for  the  classes 
than  for  the  masses.  They  are  inclined  to  be  aristocratic 
while  play  is  democratic.  They  require  more  equipment, 
more  special  training  and  more  money  to  maintain  them, 
reaching  in  their  turn  only  the  few  with  its  benefits.  From 
the  viewpoint  of  the  school  they  require  a  special  training  and 
a  degree  of  skill  that  could  hardly  be  demanded  of  the  ordin- 
ary. Again  they  are  mostly  for  boys  and  leave  the  girls 
out  of  their  sphere  of  good  almost  entirely.  'Tis  true  that 
teachers  must  be  taught  to  play  games  and  should  learn  to 
play  as  many  different  games  as  possible  so  as  to  be  able 
at  all  times  to  entertain  their  pupils  and  make  and  keep 
them  contented  and  happy,  but  for  the  opportunities  of  the 
public  school  and  the  purposes  which  plays  and  games  are  to 
serve,  they  should  receive  the  preference  over  athletics,  at 
least  in  the  public  schools.  Teachers  who  are  deficient  in 
their  knowledge  of  games  may  now  extend  their  knowledge 
of  them  by  all  of  the  ordinary  methods  available  for  the 
extension  of  knowledge  in  other  fields.  School  journals  are 
now  taking  up  the  question  of  games  for  the  schoolroom  and 
the  school  playground  and  most  normal  schools  and  teachers' 
colleges  offer  special  courses  both  in  the  regular  session  and 
the  summer  session  in  teaching,  directing  and  supervising 
play  in  the  school  and  on  the  playground.     Of  one  or  more 


388  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

of  these  sources  most  teachers  so -desiring  can  avail  them- 
selves. Nor  should  a  teacher  deficient  in  these  lines  belittle 
the  effect  of  his  deficiency  upon  the  school  and  its  work. 
"  All  work  and  no  play  makes  Jack  a  dull  boy  "  is  an  old 
but  true  saying.  Nowhere  is  its  effects  seen  more  clearly  than 
in  the  work  of  the  school.  How  the  energy  curve  rises 
gradually  after  the  school  has  had  a  period  of  play  in  the 
open  air  was  shown  elsewhere.  This  speaks  for  itself,  and 
any  one  sufficiently  interested  can  carry  these  experiments 
further  and  learn  for  himself  the  effects  of  play  upon  the 
health,  vitality  and  working  efficiency  of  a  school.  The 
school  therefore  owes  it  to  itself  to  foster  play  and  devote 
a  reasonable  amount  of  its  time,  energy  and  equipment  to 
the  developing  of  the  spirit  of  play  in  the  children,  if  for 
no  other  reason  than  that  the  work  of  the  school  itself  can 
be  carried  on  to  better  purpose  and  more  permanent  results 
by  this  method.  Fostering  of  play  then  by  the  school  is 
not  only  a  duty,  it  is  a  necessity  and  is  closely  related  to 
the  maintenance  and  growth  of  the  school  and  the  success 
of  its  efforts. 

REFERENCE  READING 

Taylor's  "  The  Study  of  the  Child."     Chap.  XIX. 

Harris'  "Psychologic  Foundations  of  Education."    Chap.  XXXV. 

Compayre's  "  Psychology  Applied  to  Education."     Chap.  II. 

Rosenkranz's  "  Philosophy  of  Education."     Part  I,  Chap.  III. 

Froebel's  "  Education  of  Man."     Pages  29,  30,  49,  97. 

Froebel's  "  Educational  Laws."     Chap.  V. 

Blow's  "  Educational  Issues  in  the  Kindergarten."     Chap.  VI. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  works  on  Education  are  so  numerous  that  it  would 
be  very  difficult  and  also  unnecessary  to  give  more  than  a 
cursory  list  of  references  in  a  work  of  such  limited  scope  as 
this.  The  aim  has  been  to  limit  the  references  to  the  smaller 
texts,  many  of  which  almost  any  one  of  limited  means  and 
literary  taste  can  afford  to  buy  and  have  on  the  shelves  of 
their  private  libraries.  In  the  profession  of  teaching  noth- 
ing is  so  essential  as  a  wide  awake  well  read  person  in  litera- 
ture especially  fitted  for  and  adapted  to  the  profession. 
Too,  the  time  when  a  teacher  can  hope  for  success  when 
wholly  dependent  for  his  capability  upon  the  art  as  learned 
by  the  methods  used  by  his  teachers  and  unscientifically  ap- 
plied by  himself  is  long  past.  The  only  hope  that  promises 
the  least  bit  of  a  chance  for  successs  to-day  is  that  learned 
professionally  in  training  supplemented  by  extensive  read- 
ing of  professional  literature  both  practical  and  theoretical 
and  applied  by  experiment  to  the  everyday  conditions  of 
the  schoolroom.  It  is  with  this  view  in  mind  that  a  bibli- 
ography of  this  kind  is  presented  and  it  is  most  sincerely 
hoped  that  those  who  consult  the  works  cited  will  find  in 
it  some  literature  that  will  throw  helpful  light  upon  the 
problems  which  confront  them  daily  in  handling  their  classes, 
in  their  efforts  to  do  effective  work,  in  unfolding  truth,  im- 
parting facts  of  knowledge  and  forming  habits  which  will 
form  a  character  in  the  citizenship  and  give  a  skill  in  the 
use  of  the  instruments  of  civilization,  that  will  guarantee  to 
the  state  and  society  industry,  thrift  and  economy  on  the 
part  of  their  product,  thus  enabling  each  to  contribute  his 
share  to  world  peace  and  contentment. 

Hinsdale's  "Art  of  Study." 
Smith's  "  Systematic  Methodology." 
Gordy's  "A  Broader  Elementary  Education." 
Miinsterberg's  "Psychology  and  Life." 

389 


390  Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

Tucker's  "  Education." 

Griggs'  "  Moral  Education." 

Rorve's  "  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child." 

Beard's  "  Education." 

Henderson's  "  Education  and  the  Larger  Life." 

Wagner's  "  The  Simple  Life." 

Brigg's  "  School,  College  and  Character." 

Dalton's  "  Social  Phases  in  Education." 

Eliot's  "  Educational  Reform." 

Roark's  "  Jiconomy  in  Education." 

Taylor's  "  Class  Management  and  Discipline." 

O'Shea's  "  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education." 

Thorndike's  "  Principles  of  Teaching." 

Angell's  "  Psychology." 

James'  "  Psychology." 

James'  "Talks  to  Teachers." 

Snedden's  "Educational  Readjustment." 

Gillette's  "  Vocational  Education." 

Power's  "  Educational  Meaning  of  Manual  Arts  and  Industry." 

Snedden's  "  Problems  of  Vocational  Education." 

James'  "The  Will  to  Believe." 

Hall's  "  The  Content  of  a  Child's  Mind  on  Entering  School." 

Dewey's  "  The  School  and  the  Child." 

Fincllay's  "  The  Principles  of  Class  Teaching." 

Gould's  "  The  Children's  Book  of  Moral  Lessons." 

O'Shea's  "  Education  as  Adjustment." 

Sedgwick's  "On  Stimulus." 

Winch's  "  Notes  on  German  Schools." 

Foote's  "  Weariness."     Nineteenth  Century,  Sept.,  1893. 

MacDougall,  R.,  "  Fatigue."     Psychological  Review,  1899. 

MacDougall,  W.,  "  Fatigue."     British  Association  Reports,  1908. 

Winch's  "  Psychology  and  Philosophy  of  Play." 

Monroe's  "  History  of  Education." 

Allport's  "Tests  for  Defective  Vision  in  School  Children."  Educa- 
tional Review,  1897,  New  York. 

Barn's  "The  Arid  Atmosphere  of  Our  Homes  in  Winter." 

Belling  s  "Ventilation  and  Heating." 

Brigg's  "  Modern  School  Building." 

Carpenter's  "The  Heating  and  Ventilating  of  Buildings." 

Duke's  "  Health  at  School  Considered  in  Its  Mental,  Moral  and  Physical 
Aspects." 

Fritz's  "  Play  as  a  Factor  in  Development." 

Lukens'  "The  School  Fatigue  Question  in  Germany." 

Mosher's  "The  Habitual  Postures  of  School  Children."  Educational 
Review,  1897,  New  York. 

Sumner's  "  Folkways." 

Taylor's  "  The  Problems  of  Conduct." 

Thomas'  "  Relation  of  Sex  to  Primitive  Social  Control  in  Sex  and  So- 
ciety." 

Kidd's  "Savage  Childhood." 

Palmer's  "The  Nature  of  Goodness   (Punishment)  Child  Attitude." 

Fichte's  "The  Science  of  Rights." 

Sumner's  "What  Social  Classes  Owe  to  Each  Other.  What  Shall  the 
Public  Schools  Teach?"    Vol.  V. 


Bibliography  391 

Kern's  "  Among  Country  Schools." 

Scott's  "  Social  Education." 

Shaw's  •*  School  Hygiene." 

Porters  "The  Physical  Basis  of  Precocity  and  Dullness."  Acad,  of 
Sci.,  St.  Louis,  1893. 

Sanford's  -  Relative  Legibility  of  the  Small  Letters  of  the  Alphabet." 
American  Journal  of  Psy.,  Vol.  I,  No.  3,  1888. 

Scudder.  In  School  Document.  No.  9,  1892,  Boston,  Mass.  "Lateral 
Curvature  of  the  Spine  as  Caused  by  the  Seating  of  School  Chil- 
dren." 

Adler's  "  Moral  Instruction  of  Children." 

Compayre's  "  Intellectual  and  Moral  Development  of  the  Child." 

Malieson's  "  Early  Training  of  Children." 

Payne's  "Contributions  to  the  Science  of  Education." 

Spencer's  "  Education." 

Bain's  "Education  as  a  Science  (Punishment)." 

Stanley  Hall's  "Youth." 

Stanley  Hall's  "  Adolescence." 

Fichte's  "  Teaching." 

Edgeworth's  "  Practical  Education.'* 

Wilke's  "  The  Place  of  the  Story  in  Early  Education." 

Judd's  "  Studies  of  Childhood." 

Fitch's  "Lectures  on  Teaching."  Chaps.  V,  VI,  "questioning  in  teach- 
ing." 

Adam's  "  Primer  on  Teaching."     Chap.  VII,  "  questioning  in  teaching." 

Compayre's  "  Psychology  Applied  to  Education." 

Keating's  "  Suggestions  in  Education." 

Martineau's  "  Household  Education." 

Locke's  "  Thoughts  on  Education"  (Punishment). 

Groos'  "The  Play  of  Animals." 

Groos'  "  The  Play  of  Man." 

Bryant's  "Educational  Ends"  (obstinacy  and  self  will)  -2\. 

McCunn's  "  The  Making  of  Character." 

Gugan,  "Education  and  Heredity  (habit)." 

Compayre's  "  Pioneers  of  Education."  Chap.  V,  Spencer  (natural 
punishment). 

Miinsterberg's  "  Psvchology  and  the  Teacher"  (Punishment).  Chap. 
XI. 

Sully's  "  Teachers'  Handbooks  of  Psychology." 

Huxley's  "  Science  and  Education." 

Rosenkranz's  "  Philosophy  of  Education." 

Reins'  "  Outlines  of  Pedagogics." 

Herbart's  "  Introduction  to  the  General  Principles  of  the  Science  of 
Education." 

Sully's  "Outlines  of  Psychology." 

Hill's  "Elements  of  Psychology." 

Preyer's  "  Infant  Mind." 

Lange's  "  Apperception." 

Wiltsie's  "Place  of  the  Story  in  Early  Education." 

Howland's  "  Practical  Hints  to  Teachers." 

Prince's  "  Methods  in  German  Schools." 

Arnold's  "  Way  Marks  for  Teachers." 

Janet's  "Elements  of  Morals." 

Robinson's  "Principles  and  Practices  of  Morality." 


Education  in  Theory  and  Practice 

Hyde's  "Practical  Ethics." 

Adler's  "Moral  Instruction  of  Children." 

Ped.  Sem.  Vol.  I,  "Moral  Education  and  Will  Training." 

Preyer's  "  The  Senses  and  the  Will." 

King's  "  Personal  and  Ideal  Elements  in  Education." 

King's  "  Psychology  of  Child  Development." 

Harris'  "  Psychologic  Foundations  of  Education." 

Thompson's  "  Brain  and  Personality." 

Randenbusch's  "  Christianity  and  the  Social  Crisis." 

Randenbusch's  "  Christianizing  the  Social  Order." 

Hall's  "  Social  Meaning  of  Modern  Religious  Movements." 

McFarland's  "  Spiritual  Culture  and  Social  Service." 

Gill  and  Pinchot's  "  The  Country  Church." 

Carlton's  "  The  Industrial  Situation." 

Wells'  "  A  Social  Survey  for  Rural  Communities." 

Ward's  "  The  Social  Creed  of  the  Churches." 

Ethical  and  Religious  Significance  of  the  State  (Dealey  in  1912). 

Publication  of  the  Baptist  Department  of  Social  Service  and  Brother- 
hood. 

Patten's  "  The  Social  Basis  of  Religion." 

Taylor's  "  Religion  in  Social  Action." 

Ellwood's  "  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects." 

King's  "  Education  for  Efficiency." 

Drummond's  "  Introduction  to  Child  Study." 

Tompkins'  "The  Philosophy  of  School  Management." 

Le  Bonn's  "The  Crowd." 

Butler's  "  The  Meaning  of  Education." 

Kirkpatrick's  "The  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study." 

Adamson's  "The  Practice  of  Instruction." 

Allen's  "The  Origin  and  Function  of  Habits  in  Certain  Aspects  of 
Educational  Progress."  Publication  by  Department  of  Psy.  and 
Ed.  University  of  Colorado. 


INDEX 


Adjustment,   30-36. 

1.  Capacity  for,  30. 

2.  Civil,  36. 

3.  Dangers  of,  35. 

4.  Economic,  35. 

5.  Mental,  31. 

6.  Moral,  33. 

7.  Physical,  31. 

8.  Religious,  34. 

9.  Social,  36. 

Air,    humidity    of,    in    schoolroom, 
117. 

motion  of,  115. 
America,  courses  of  study  in,  257. 

national  ideals  of,  53. 
American  civilization,  356. 
American  system,  demands  of,  167. 
American  education,  results  in,  17. 
Approbation,   desire   for,   155. 
Aristotle,  17. 

courses  of  study  of,  252. 

laws  of  association  by,  339. 
Arrangements  of  subjects,  268. 
Art  in  education,  20. 
Athletics,  61. 

moral  value  of,  385. 
Attention,  kinds  of,  325. 
Average  pupil,  307. 

Bad  boy,  the,  153. 
Bain,  on  education,  290. 
Bryan,  definition  of  education  by, 
14. 

Calisthenics,  61,  62. 
Chadwick,  269. 
Chautauquas,  98. 
Cheating  and  copying,  308. 
Child  energy,  281. 
Children,  motive  in,  142. 
Chinese  education,  54. 
Chinese,  national  ideals,  54. 
Christian  associations,  75,  76. 
Criminal  tendencies  in  school,  34. 
Church  attendance,  reasons  for,  94. 
Church  education,  50,  89. 


Class  education,  53. 

Coal  stoves,  heating  by,  118. 

Commendation,  the  giving  of,  214. 

Community  meetings,  124. 

Confucius,  40. 

Contagious  diseases,  121. 

Courses  of  study,  purpose  of,  248. 

justification  of,  250. 

historical  development  of,  251. 

and  the  daily  program,  264. 

value  of,  259. 
Courtesy,  professional,  lack  of,  235. 
Cultural  education,  79. 

Daily  program,  aim  of,  260. 

difficulty  of,  270. 
Demands   in    American   education, 

16. 
Demands    for   physical   education, 

63. 
Desks,  111. 

Deoxidation  in  pupils,  131. 
Disease,  bacteria,  102. 

contagious,  146. 
Discipline  and  government,  149. 
Dismissal  of  students,  226. 
Dogmatic     education,     separation 

of,  92. 
Duty  of  parents,  83. 

Education,  aim  of,  20,  39,  41,  42. 

as  an  art,  19. 

by  contact,  52. 

broad  and  narrow,  14. 

definition  of,  13,  14. 

limit  of,  48. 

U.  S.  Commissioner  of,  126. 
Education  and  environment,  15. 
Education  and  history,  26,  27. 
Education  and  pedagogy,  26. 
Education  and  psychology,  25. 
Education,     psychological     aspect 
of,  24. 

physiological   aspect  of,  24. 
Educational    opportunity,    sources 
of,  49. 


393 


394 


Index 


Educational     spirit,     method      of 

arousing,  242. 
Ego  and  alter,  the,  210. 
England,  national  ideals  of,  53. 
Esthetic  education,  aim  of,  71. 
Esthetic     education,     opportunity 

for,  72. 
Exercises,  opening,  value  of,  225. 

Facts,  questions  for,  290. 

Factors  of  education,  81. 

Fatigue  agents,  265. 

Fire  drills,  109. 

Fiske,  L.  R.,  289. 

Fitch,  J.  F.,  279. 

Form  and  content  subjects,  265. 

France,  national  ideals  of,  54. 

Franchise,  elective,  use  of,  362. 

Games,  indoor,  381. 

outdoor,  381. 
German,  courses  of  study  in,  256. 

national  ideals,  53. 
Gilbert,  definition  of  education,  by, 

13. 
Giving    of    marks,    dissatisfaction 

from,  213. 
Government  and  discipline,  149. 
Glass  surface  for  lighting,  119. 
Gymnastics  for  girls,  64,  65. 
Gymnastics,  value  of  in  school,  59, 

60,  62. 
Gulick,  on  play,  371. 

Haberle,  punishments  by,  175,  187. 
Habits,  kinds  of,  34.2,  345. 
Hamilton,   definition   of   education 

by,  13. 
Hauser  on  education,  40. 
Heart  training,  273. 
Helvetius  on  education,  40. 
Henry,  George,  on  education,  40. 
Herbart  on  education,  254,  257. 
Heredity,  192. 
Hensinger  desk,  the,  113. 
Hobbes,    laws    of    association    by, 

339. 
Home  education,  83. 
Home  visiting,  value  of,  239. 
Honor,  love  of,  221. 

standards  of,  219,  220. 
Hume,  laws  of  association  by,  339. 

Illiteracy,  77. 


Imagination,  kinds  of,  323. 

stimuli  for,  338. 

subjects  appropriate  for,  338. 
Imitation,  stage  of,  88. 
Immunities,  the  granting  of,  207. 
Individual  limitations  of,  48,  49. 
Industrial  schools,  65. 
Inertia  of  mind,  43. 
Intellectual  education,  55. 
Interest,  kinds  of,  323. 
Instruction,  definition  of,  23. 

i 
James,  William,  definition  of  edu- 
cation by,  13. 

on  education,  336,  345,  347. 
Jews,  national  ideals  of,  54. 
Johnson,    Governor    John    A.,    on 
play,  371. 


Kasper,  on  education,  40. 
Keeping  of  grades,  value  of,  288. 

objection  to,  230. 
Kerr,    definition   of   education   bv, 

13. 
Knowledge,  desire  for,  217. 

sources  of,   17. 
Kotelman,  on  education,  144. 

Laboulaye,  definition  of  education 

by,  13. 
Lamarck,  law  of  use,  by,  64,  367. 
Lesson,   assignment  of,  279. 
Light,  direction  of,  119. 
Locke,  John,  on  education,  38. 
Luther,  courses  of  study  by,  252. 

doctrine  of  education,  35. 
Luxfer  prism,  lighting  by,  119. 

Manual  training,  66. 
Massachusetts,  laws  of,  114. 
McMurray,  Prof.   Frank,  on   edu- 
cation, 289. 
Mechanism  in  schoolroom,  133. 
Memory,  device  of,  335. 

kinds  of,  333. 

methods  for  testing,  334. 

laws  of,  335. 

loss  of,  331. 
Methods  in  education,  21,  24. 
Middle  Ages,  papal  supremacy  in, 

350. 
Mills,  James,  definition  of  educa- 
tion, by,  13. 


Index 


395 


Mills,   J.    S.,    definition   of   educa- 
tion by,  13. 
Milton,  John,  on  education,  253. 
Mind  and  body,  25. 
Monitors,  selection  of,  137. 
Monitorships,   rights   to,  206. 
Moral  education,  need  of,  69,  70. 
Moral  education,  55. 

National    Education    Association, 

work  of,  126. 
Neighborhood   meetings,   value  of, 

2-1-1. 

Page,  D.  P.,  on  education,  279. 
Patriotism,  definition  of,  362. 
Pedagogy,  definition  of,  26. 
Periods,  length  of,  269. 
Physical  education,  58. 
Physiological  education,  56. 
Play,  supervision  of,  375. 
Playgrounds,  purpose,  379. 
Playing  games,  kinds  of,  380. 
Playing  room,  105. 
Plato,   definition   of   education   by, 
13. 

on  education,  17. 
Politeness,  359. 
Practical  education,  78. 
Prejudice,  46. 
Primitive  man,  352. 
Professional  organization,  238. 
Professional  training,  277. 
Psychology,  aim  of,  25. 

knowledge  of,  essential,  26. 

physiological,  57. 
Prizes,  the  giving  of,  203. 
Punishments,  definition  of,  187. 

justification,  157,  183. 

methods  of  inflicting,  174. 

purpose  of,  177. 

value  of,  183. 

Rauber,  on  education,  40. 
Recess,    time    and    value    of,    262, 

145. 
Recitation,  accessories  of,  313. 

aims  of,  312. 

steps  of,  315. 

questions  of,  296. 
Reciprocal  cooperation,  85,  91. 
Religious  education,  aim  of,  73. 
Relative  fatigue  value  of  subjects, 
267. 


Repetition  in  education,  17. 

Restricted  mind  and  body,  43. 

Reviews,  justification  of,  310. 

Rewards,  purpose  of,  201. 

Riis,  Jacob,  on  play,  369. 

Room,  temperature  of,  116. 

Rosenkranz,  definition  of  educa- 
tion by,  178. 

Rousseau,  theory  of  punishments 
by,  178. 

Routine  duties,  223. 

Ruediger,  definition  of  education 
by,  13. 

Science  in  education,  20. 

School  aims,  87. 

School  buildings,  107. 

School  day,  length  of,  261. 

School  grounds,  102. 

School   hour,   length   of,   261. 

School  year,  length  of,  260. 

Scolding,  189. 

Scope  of  work,  90. 

Scudder,  definition  of  education 
by,  13. 

Seating,  reasons  for,  139. 

Seifey  on  patriotism,  365. 

Self-activity,  inhibition  of,  134. 

Self-esteem,  210. 

Sex  association  in  school,  355. 

Simon,  definition  of  education  by, 
13. 

Smith,  Adam,  on  education,  40. 

Social  education,  98. 

Social  evolution,  historical  evi- 
dence of,  92. 

Socrates  on  education,  279. 
on  method,  227,  299. 

Special  development,  60. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  courses  of  study 
by,  254,  257. 
theory  of  punishments  by,  178. 

State  education,  50,  52,  96,  97 

Sturm,  on  education,  253. 

Successful   education,  22. 

Sun  as  a  disinfectant,  107. 

Sundav  schools,  attendance  on, 
356. 

Superstition,  45. 

Supervision,  aids  to,  130. 

Sympathy,  142. 

Teacher,  preparation  of,  272. 
appointment  of,  164. 


396 


Teacher,  unpreparedness  of,  163. 

value  to  community,  245. 

vocabularies  of,  283. 
Teaching,  definition  of,  23. 
Terms,  use  of,  22. 
Theory  and  practise  in  education, 

17. 
Time  and  energy,  conservation  of, 

126. 
Thought,  question  for,  290,  298. 
Toilets,  problem  of,  123. 
Tradition,  44. 
Training,  definition  of,  23. 


Index 

Unruly  pupil,  the,  140. 

Vocational  education,  67, 


Ward,  Leslie,  on  education,  38,  41. 
Whewell,    definition    of    education 

by,  13. 
Woodward,  definition  of  education 

by,  13. 

Xavier,  Father,  on  education,  40. 


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